Metal Casting

Manufacturing Technology
Monday, July 16, 2012
What is Manufacturing?
Manu Factus : Latin for made by hand Definition: A Well organized method of converting raw material to end product End Product: Value and utility added to output.
History of Manufacturing
Manufacturing started during 5000 4000 BC Wood work,ceramics,stone and metal work Steel Production 600-800 AD Industrial Revolution 1750 AD: Machine tools run by invention of steam engine Mass Production and Interchangeable Parts Computer Controlled Machines 1965 CNC,FMS systems
Historical development of materials - The Early Days

Period Egypt ~3100 B.C. to ~ 300 B.C Greece ~1100 B.C. to ~146 B.C Roman Empire ~500 B.C. to 476 A.D Middle Ages 476 to 1492 Renaissance 14th to 16th centuries Before 4000 B.C 4000-3000 B.C. Metals and Casting Gold,copper and meteoritic iron Copper casting,stone and metal molds,lost wax process,silver,lead,tin,bron ze Bronze casting Forming Process Hammering Stamping Jewelry
3000-2000 B.C. 2000-1000 B.C. 1000-1 B.C. 1A.D 1000 A.D 1000-1500 A.D.
Wire by cutting and drawing, gold leaf
Wrought iron,brass Cast iron, cast steel Zinc steel Blast furnace, type metals,casting of bells,pewter Stamping of coins Armor,coinage,for ging steel swords Wire drawing,gold silver smith work
Historical development of materials - The Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution 1750-1850 1500-1600 A.D. Cast iron cannon, tinplate Water power for metal working,rolling mill for coinage Rolling(lead,gold,silver ) Shape rolling(lead) Extrusion (lead pipe), deep drawing, rolling(iron bars and rods) Steam hammer, steel rolling,seamless tube piercing,steel rail rolling, continuous rolling , electroplating
1600-1700 A.D.
Permanent mold casting,brass from copper and metallic zinc
1700-1800 A.D.
Malleable cast iron,crucible steel
1800-1900 A.D.
Centrifugal casting,Bessemer process,electrolytic aluminum,nickel steels,Babbitt, galvanized steel, powder metallurgy, tungsten steel, open hearth steel
Historical development of materials - The Modern Age

WW I and WW II 1900-1920 A.D. 1920-1940 A.D. Die casting Tube rolling, hot extrusion Tungsten wire from powder
1940-1950 A.D.
Space Age 1950-1960 A.D.
Lost wax for engineering parts

Ceramic mold, nodular iron, semiconductors,continuou s casting Squeeze casting, single crystal turbine blades Compacted graphite,vacuum casting,organically bonded sand,automation of molding and pouring, large aluminum castings for aircraft structures rapid solidification technology
Extrusion (steel),swaging, powder metal for engineering parts

Cold extrusion (steel),explosive forming,thermo mechanical treatment Hydrostatic extrusion,electroforming Precision forging,isothermal forging, super plastic forming,die design by analytical methods, net shape forming 6
1960-1970 A.D 1970-1980 s
Requirements of a good manufacturing system

Product should meet design requirement Economical Process Quality should be built into the system Should be flexible and responsive to new technology High productivity: Best utilization of man, material, machine, capital and available resources.
Steps in Modern Manufacturing

Definition of product need, marketing information
Conceptual design and evaluation Feasibility study
Design analysis;codes/standards review; physical and analytical models
CAM and CAPP Production
Prototype production testing and evaluation Inspection and quality assurance CAD Production drawings; Instruction manuals Packaging; marketing and sales literature
Material Specification; process and equipment selection; safety review
Product
Pilot Production
Manufacturing of a Paper Clip

What is the function How long does it last How critical is the part Material
Dimension Method of manufacturing Function based design
Style
Metallic - what type Non metallic plastic Diameter of clip Shape of clip Manual Automated Stress, Strain Life of clip Stiffness Appearance,Color,Finish Plating,painting
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Selection of Process depends on

Dimensional and surface finish requirements Operational Cost Design and strength requirements Consequences of various methods
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Fundamentals of Casting
Casting, one of the oldest manufacturing processes, dates back to 4000 B.C. when copper arrowheads were made. Casting processes basically involve the introduction of a molten metal into a mold cavity, where upon solidification, the metal takes on the shape of the mold cavity. Simple and complicated shapes can be made from any metal that can be melted. Example of cast parts: frames, structural parts, machine components, engine blocks, valves, pipes, statues, ornamental artifacts..
Casting sizes range form few mm (teeth of a zipper) to 10 m (propellers of ocean liners).
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Casting
Refractory mold pour liquid metal solidify, remove finish VERSATILE: sections complex geometry, internal cavities, hollow
VERSATILE: small (~10 grams) very large parts (~1000 Kg) ECONOMICAL: little wastage (extra metal is re-used) ISOTROPIC: cast parts have same properties along all Monday, July 16, 13 directions 2012
Casting Processes
Preparing a mold cavity of the desired shape with proper allowance for shrinkage. Melting the metal with acceptable quality and temp. Pouring the metal into the cavity and providing means for the escape of air or gases. Solidification process, must be properly designed and controlled to avoid defects. Mold removal. Finishing, cleaning and inspection operations.
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DEFINITION
CASTING: The solidified metal, which is taken out of the mould. FOUNDARY: A plant where the castings are made. i) Jobbing Foundries ii) Captive Foundries
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Different Casting Processes
Process Sand Shell mold Expendable pattern Plaster mold Ceramic mold Investment Permanent mold Die Centrifugal
Advantages many metals, sizes, shapes, cheap better accuracy, finish, higher production rate Wide range of metals, sizes, shapes complex shapes, good surface finish complex shapes, high accuracy, good finish complex shapes, excellent finish good finish, low porosity, high production rate Excellent dimensional accuracy, high production rate
Disadvantages poor finish & tolerance limited part size patterns have low strength non-ferrous metals, low production rate small sizes small parts, expensive Costly mold, simpler shapes only costly dies, small parts, non-ferrous metals Expensive, few shapes
Examples engine blocks, cylinder heads connecting rods, gear housings cylinder heads, brake components prototypes of mechanical parts impellers, injection mold tooling jewellery gears, gear housings gears, camera bodies, car wheels pipes, boilers, flywheels 16
Large cylindrical parts, good Monday, July 16,quality 2012
Types of Molds
Expandable molds mixed with various types of binders or bonding agents Sand Plaster Ceramics Note: these molds are able to withstand high temperatures and mold is broken up to remove the casting
Permanent molds - Made of metal Subjected to a higher cooling rate Affects grain size Used repeatedly Casting can be removed easily Composite molds - Made of two or more materials Sand Graphite Metal Combines advantages of each material Used to: Control cooling rates Improve mold strength Optimize economics of the process Monday, July 16, 2012
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Advantages
Complex geometries external and internal Can be net-shaped or near net-shaped Can produce very large parts Any metals Can be mass-produced Size variety big and small
Disadvantages
Limitation in mechanical properties, porosity, Dimensional accuracy, surface finish Safety Hazard Environmental problems
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Casting Terminology
Open Mould
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Casting Terminology Contd

Flask The box containing the mold Cope The top half of any part of a 2-part mold Drag The bottom half of any part of a 2-part mold Core A shape inserted into the mold to form internal cavities Core Print A region used to support the core Mold Cavity The hollow mold area in which metal solidifies into the part
Closed Mould
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Closed Mould
Riser An extra cavity to store additional metal to prevent shrinkage Gating System Channels used to deliver metal into the mold cavity Pouring Cup The part of the gating system that receives poured metal Sprue Vertical channel Runners Horizontal channels
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Closed Mould
Parting Line / Parting Surface Interface that separates the cope and drag of a 2-part mold Draft Taper on a pattern or casting that allows removal from the mold Core Box Mold or die used to produce cores Casting The process and product of solidifying metal in a mold
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Core
- Cores are used to create internal cavities. - Should have similar properties as the mold. - Shaken out after casting is produced.
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Typical Cast Parts
(c
(a
(d (b
(a) Typical gray-iron castings used in automobiles, including the transmission valve body (left) and the hub rotor with disk-brake cylinder (front).
(b) A cast transmission housing.(c) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ191D die-cast highpurity magnesium case. (d) A two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die-casting process
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Sand Casting
Traditional way to cast metals How to make a sand casting Placing a pattern having the shape of the desired casting in to the sand to make an imprint Incorporating a gating system Filling the resulting cavity with molten metal Allow the metal to cool Break away the sand mold Type of sand to use Most common silica sand (SiO2) There are two types of sand: Naturally bonded (bank sand) Synthetic (lake sand) Preferred by foundries b/c its composition can be controlled
Monday, July 16, 2012 25
Production Steps in Sand-Casting
Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation

Sand Casting Cont

Selection of sand Fine round grains Smooth surface finishes Can be closely packed Have lower mold permeability Enhances mold strength Course grains Allow gases and steam escape Sand molds Should have good collapsibility Sand should be mixed thoroughly with Clay (bentonite) cohesive agent Zircon, olivine, and iron silicate sands are used in steel foundries for low thermal expansion Chromites is used for its high heat transfer characteristics Types of sand molds Green mold sanding Mixture of sand, clay, and water green sand in the mold is moist Least expensive method of making molds
Sand Casting Cont

Skin-dried molds
Mold surfaces are dried Used for large castings Have higher strength than green-sand molds Better dimensional accuracy and surface finish Drawbacks: Distortion to the mold is greater Castings susceptible to hot tearing Slower production rate
Cold-box molds
Various organic and inorganic binders are blended into the sand for greater strength Dimensionally more accurate
No-bake mold
Synthetic liquid resin is mixed into the sand Hardens Monday, July 16, 2012 at room temperature
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Sand Casting Cont Major components of sand molds:

Flask supports the mold Pouring basin in which molten metal is poured in to Sprue through which molten metal flows downward Runner system channels that carry molten metal from the sprue Risers - supply additional metal to the casting during shrinkage. Cores
Inserts made of sand Used to make hollow regions Used to form letterings on the casting and other features
Vents used to carry off gases that are produced and exhaust air from the mold cavity as metal flows on to the mold
Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features
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Sequence of Operations for Sand-Casting
Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-c) Patterns have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins and attaching inserts to form the sprue and risers. Continued on next slide
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Sequence of Operations for Sand-Casting
(g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (h) The drag half is produced in a similar manner with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned with pins. (i) The pattern , flask, and bottom board are inverted; and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the appropriate imprint. (j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k)The mold is closed by placing the cope on top of the drag and securing the assembly with pins. The flasks the are subjected to pressure to counteract buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the metal solidifies, the casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled, and the casting is 32 cleaned, Monday, July 16, 2012 inspected, and heat treated (when necessary
TYPES OF SAND MOULD CASTING PROCESSES

1. Bench Molding: only for small work
2. Floor Molding : Done on foundry floor, medium and large castings 3. Pit Molding: very Large castings
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PATTERN MATERIALS
Factors assist in selecting proper pattern material:

No. of castings to be produced.
Metal to be cast. Dimensional accuracy & surface finish. Shape, complexity and size of casting. Casting design parameters. Type of molding materials. The chance of repeat orders. Nature of molding process.
7/16/2012 9:58:00 PM
Position of core print
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Patterns material
The pattern is made from the following materials.
Wood Metal Plastic Plaster Wax.
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Wood Patterns
These are used where the no. of castings to be produced is small and pattern size is large.
Properly dried and seasoned Moisture should not contain more than 10% to avoid warping and distrotion
It should be straight grains and free from knots Commonly used woods for making patterns:
Pine : widely used, straight grain and light weight, easy to work Mahogony: its harder than pine, warping is less Deodar, Teak, cherry and kail etc..
Advantages
Inexpensive Easily available in large quantities Easy to fabricate Light in weight They can be repaired easily Easy to obtain good surface finish
Limitations
Susceptible to shrinkage and swelling Possess poor wear resistance Abraded easily by sand action Absorb moisture, consequently get wrapped Cannot withstand rough handling Life is very short
Metal Patterns
These are employed where large no. of castings have to be produced from same patterns.
Commonly used metals for making patterns:
o
o o o o
Cast iron
Aluminium and its alloys Steel White metal Brass etc..
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Advantages
Do not absorb moisture
More stronger Possess much longer life Do not wrap, retain their shape Greater resistance to abrasion
Accurate and smooth surface finish

Good machinability
Limitations
Expensive
Require a lot of machining for accuracy Not easily repaired Ferrous patterns get rusted Heavy weight , thus difficult to handle
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Plastic Patterns
Patterns can be made from thermo plastics and thermoset plastics. Thermo plastic pattern are used for producing small number of
castings and thermo set plastic patterns are used for large number of
casting. Plastic patterns are made by
Injecting a plastic material into a die
Laminated construction by building a successive layer of resin and glass fibre Pouring a plastic material into a plaster mould
The most generally used plastics are Epoxy resins with fillers PU foam
Advantages
Durable Provides a smooth surface Moisture resistant Does not involve any appreciable change in size or shape Light weight Good strength Wear and corrosion resistance Easy to make Abrasion resistance Good resistance to chemical attack
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Limitations
Plastic patterns are Fragile These are may not work well when subject to conditions of severe shock as in machine molding (jolting).
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Plaster Patterns
Plaster may be made out of Plaster of paris or Gypsum cement. Plaster mixture is poured into a mould made by a sweep pattern or a wooden master pattern, in order to obtain a Plaster pattern.
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Advantages
It can be easily worked by using wood working tools. Intricate shapes can be cast without any difficulty. It has high compressive strength.
Wax patterns
Wax patterns find applications in Investment casting process. Wax patterns are produced form paraffin wax, shellac wax, micro crystalline wax and bees wax.
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Advantages
Provide very good surface finish. Impart high accuracy to castings. After being molded, the wax pattern is not taken out of the mould like other patterns;
rather the mould is inverted and heated; the molten

wax comes out and/or is evaporated. Thus there is no chance of the mould cavity getting damaged while removing the pattern.
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Pattern Material Characteristics

TABLE 11.3 Characteristic Wood Aluminum Rating Steel
a
Plastic
Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G Wear resistance P G E F E Strength F G E G G Weightb E G P G P Repairability E P G F G Resistance to: Corrosionc E E P E P Swellingc P E E E E aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor. bAs a factor in operator fatigue. cBy water. Source : D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York. McGraw-Hill, 1958.
Types of patterns
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Single piece pattern. Split piece pattern. Loose piece pattern. Match plate pattern. Sweep pattern. Gated pattern. Skeleton pattern Follow board pattern. Cope and Drag pattern.
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Single piece pattern
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2. Split piece pattern:

Patterns of intricate shaped castings cannot be made in one
piece because of the inherent difficulties associated with the

molding operations (e.g. withdrawing pattern from mould). The upper and the lower parts of the split piece patterns are accommodated in the cope and drag portions of the mold respectively.
Parting line of the pattern forms the parting line of the mould.
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Dowel pins are used for keeping the alignment between the two parts of the pattern. Examples:
1. Hollow cylinder 2. Taps and water
stop cocks etc.,

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3.Loose piece pattern

Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are embedded in
the molding sand. Such patterns are usually made with one or more
loose pieces for facilitating from the molding box and are known as loose piece patterns. Loose parts or pieces remain attached with the main body of the pattern, with the help of dowel pins. The main body of the pattern is drawn first from the molding box
and thereafter as soon as the loose parts are removed, the result is
the mold cavity.
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4. Match plate pattern

It consists of a match plate, on either side of which
each half of split patterns is fastened.

A no. of different sized and shaped patterns may be mounted on one match plate.
The match plate with the help of locator holes can

be clamped with the drag. After the cope and drag have been rammed with the molding sand, the match plate pattern is removed from in between the cope and drag.
Match plate patterns are normally used in machine molding. By using this we can eliminate mismatch of cope and drag cavities.
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5. Sweep pattern
A sweep pattern is just a form made on a wooden
board which sweeps the shape of the casting into the

sand all around the circumference. The sweep pattern rotates about the post. Once the mold is ready, Sweep pattern and the post can be removed.
Sweep pattern avoids the necessity of making a full,

large circular and costly three-dimensional pattern.
Making a sweep pattern saves a lot of time and labor as compared to making a full pattern. A sweep pattern is preferred for producing large casting of circular sections and
symmetrical shapes.
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6. Gated pattern
The sections connecting different patterns serve as runner and gates. This facilitates filling of the mould with molten metal in a better manner and at the same time eliminates the time and labour otherwise consumed in cutting runners and gates. A gated pattern can manufacture many casting at one time and thus it is used in mass production systems. Gated patterns are employed for producing small castings.
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7. Skeleton pattern
A skeleton pattern is the skeleton of a desired shape
which may be S-bend pipe or a chute or something

else. The skeleton frame is mounted on a metal base
The skeleton is made from wooden strips, and is

thus a wooden work.
The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is

rammed.
A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired shape to the sand and removes extra sand. Skeleton patterns are employed for producing a few large castings. A skeleton pattern is very economical, because it involves less material costs.
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8. Follow board pattern

A follow board is a wooden board and is used for supporting a pattern which is very thin and fragile and which may give way and collapse under pressure when the sand above the pattern is being rammed. With the follow board support under the weak pattern, the drag is rammed, and then the follow board is with drawn, The rammed drag is inverted, cope is mounted on it and rammed.
During this operation pattern remains over the inverted drag and get support from the rammed sand of the drag under it. Follow boards are also used for casting master patterns for many applications.
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9. Cope and Drag patterns

A cope and drag pattern is another form of split pattern. Each half of the pattern is fixed to a separate metal/wood plate. Each half of the pattern(along the plate) is molded separately in a separate molding box by an independent molder or moulders.
The two moulds of each half of the pattern are finally assembled and the mould is ready for pouring. Cope and drag patterns are used for producing big castings which as a whole cannot be conveniently handled by one moulder alone.
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Cope and drag pattern
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(a)Split pattern (b) Follow-board (c) Match Plate (d) Loose-piece (e) Sweep (f) Skeleton pattern
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PATTERN ALLOWANCES
A pattern is always made somewhat larger than the final job to be produced. This excess in dimensions is referred to as the Pattern allowance. Types
1. Shrinkage or Contraction allowance 2. Draft or Taper allowance 3. Machining or Finish allowance 4. Rapping or Shaking Allowance 5. Distortion or Camber Allowance
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Shrinkage or contraction allowance

Generally metals shrink in size during solidification and cooling in the mould. So casting becomes smaller than the pattern. To compensate for this, the pattern should be made larger than the casting. The amount of compensation for shrinkage is called the shrinkage allowance. Its given as mm/m C.I, Malleable Iron =10mm/m Brass, Cu, Al = 15mm/m Steel = 20mm/m Zinc, Lead = 25mm/m Dimensions are taken from a Pattern makers rule called Shrink scale
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Draft or taper allowance

When a pattern is drawn from a mould, there is always a possibility of damaging the edges of the mould. Draft is taper made on the vertical faces of a pattern to make easier drawing of pattern out of the mould as shown in Fig. The common draft is 1 to 3 degree
7/16/2012 9:58:00 PM
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Machining or finish allowance Is given due to the following reasons:

1. For removing surface roughness, Scale, slag, dirt and other imperfections from the casting. 2. For obtaining exact dimensions on the casting. 3. To achieve desired surface finish on the casting. 4. Larger for hand molding than machine molding 5. Allowances are in mm per side The dimension of the pattern to be increased depends upon the following factors: 1. Method of machining used (turning, grinding, boring, etc.). 2. Characteristics of metal 3. Method of casting used. 80 4. 7/16/2012 9:58:00 shape of the casting. Size and PM
When the pattern is shaken for easy withdrawal, the mould cavity, hence the casting is slightly increased in size. In order to compensate for this increase, the pattern should be initially made slightly smaller. For small and medium sized castings, this allowance can be ignored. Large sized and precision castings, however, shaking allowance is to be considered. The amount of this allowance is given based on previous experience.
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Rapping or Shaking Allowance
Distortion or Camber Allowance

Sometimes castings, because of their size, shape and type of metal, tend to warp or distort during the cooling period depending on the cooling speed. Expecting the amount of warpage, a pattern may be made with allowance of warpage. It is called camber. For example, a U-shaped casting will be distorted during cooling with the legs diverging, instead of parallel as shown in fig. For compensating this warpage, the pattern is made with the legs converged but,as the casting cools, the legs straighten and remain parallel.
7/16/2012 9:58:00without camber Casting PM
Actual casting
82 Pattern with camber allowance
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Metal Casting

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Metal Casting

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Manufacturing Technology

Monday, July 16, 2012

Monday, July 16, 2012

Monday, July 16, 2012

Historical development of materials - The Early Days

Wire by cutting and drawing, gold leaf

Monday, July 16, 2012

Historical development of materials - The Industrial Revolution

Permanent mold casting,brass from copper and metallic zinc

Malleable cast iron,crucible steel

Monday, July 16, 2012

Historical development of materials - The Modern Age

Lost wax for engineering parts

Extrusion (steel),swaging, powder metal for engineering parts

1960-1970 A.D 1970-1980 s

Monday, July 16, 2012

Monday, July 16, 2012

Requirements of a good manufacturing system

Monday, July 16, 2012

Steps in Modern Manufacturing

Conceptual design and evaluation Feasibility study

Design analysis;codes/standards review; physical and analytical models

CAM and CAPP Production

Material Specification; process and equipment selection; safety review

Monday, July 16, 2012

Manufacturing of a Paper Clip

Dimension Method of manufacturing Function based design

Selection of Process depends on

Monday, July 16, 2012

Monday, July 16, 2012

Monday, July 16, 2012

Monday, July 16, 2012

Different Casting Processes

Large cylindrical parts, good Monday, July 16,quality 2012

Monday, July 16, 2012

Monday, July 16, 2012

Casting Terminology Contd

Casting Terminology Contd

Monday, July 16, 2012

Casting Terminology Contd

Monday, July 16, 2012

Monday, July 16, 2012

Typical Cast Parts

Monday, July 16, 2012

Production Steps in Sand-Casting

Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation

Sand Casting Cont

Sand Casting Cont

Sand Casting Cont Major components of sand molds:

Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features

Monday, July 16, 2012

Sequence of Operations for Sand-Casting

Monday, July 16, 2012

Sequence of Operations for Sand-Casting

TYPES OF SAND MOULD CASTING PROCESSES

Monday, July 16, 2012

Factors assist in selecting proper pattern material:

Position of core print

Wood Metal Plastic Plaster Wax.

Monday, July 16, 2012

Monday, July 16, 2012

Accurate and smooth surface finish

Monday, July 16, 2012