Anatomy and Physiology

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The Human Body An Orientation
Anatomy study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts Physiology study of how the body and its parts work or function
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -
Slide 21.1
Anatomy Levels of Study

Gross Anatomy
Large structures Easily observable
Figure 1.1
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Anatomy Levels of Study

Microscopic Anatomy
Very small structures
Can only be viewed with a microscope
Figure 14.4 Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
CHEMICAL
CELLULAR
TISSUE
ORGAN
SYSTEM
ORGANIS MAL
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Directional Terms
INFERIOR (L., lower) a structure lower than
another. SUPERIOR (L., higher) a structure higher than another. ANTERIOR (L., to go before) toward the front of the body. POSTERIOR (L., posterus, following) toward the back of the body. DORSAL (L., dorsum, back) synonymous with posterior VENTRAL (L, ventrum, belly) synonymous with anterior. Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Cluster 3 6
Directional Terms
PROXIMAL (L., proximus, nearest) closer to the point of attachment to the body than another
structure. DISTAL (L., di+sto, to be distant) farther from the point of attachment to the body than another structure. LATERAL (L., latus, side) away from the midline of the body. MEDIAL (L., medialis, middle) toward the midline of the body.
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Directional Terms
SUPERFICIAL (L., superficialis) toward or on
the surface. DEEP (Old English, deop, deep) away from the surface, internal.
Planes
SAGITTAL (flight of an arrow) runs vertically through the body and separates it into right and left
portions.
Midsagittal divides the body into equal right and left
halves. Parasagittal towards the side of the midline, divides the body in unequal right and left portions.
TRANSVERSE (horizontal) runs parallel to the ground and divides the body into superior and
inferior parts. CORONAL (frontal) - runs vertically from right to left and divides the body into anterior and posterior Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 9 portions. Cluster 3
Sections
LONGITUDINAL a cut through the
longitudinal axis of an organ. TRANSVERSE a cut at a right angle to the longitudinal axis. OBLIQUE a cut made across the longitudinal axis at angle other than a right angle.
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Body Regions
APPENDICULAR includes the limbs and their
girdles Upper limb arm, forearm, wrist, and hand; attached to the body by the shoulder or pectoral girdle. Lower limb thigh, leg, ankle, and foot; attached to the body by the hip or pelvic girdle. AXIAL consists of the head, neck and trunk. Trunk divided into the trunk (chest), abdomen, and pelvis.
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Body Regions
APPENDICULAR includes the limbs and their
girdles Upper limb arm, forearm, wrist, and hand; attached to the body by the shoulder or pectoral girdle. Lower limb thigh, leg, ankle, and foot; attached to the body by the hip or pelvic girdle. AXIAL consists of the head, neck and trunk. Trunk divided into the trunk (chest), abdomen, and pelvis.
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Abdominal Quadrants
RIGHT UPPER QUADRANT LEFT UPPER QUADRANT
RIGHT LOWER QUADRANT
RIGHT LOWER QUADRANT
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Abdominal Regions
RIGHT HYPOCHONDRIAC EPIGASTRIC LEFT HYPOCHONDRIAC
RIGHT LUMBAR
UMBILICAL
LEFT LUMBAR
RIGHT ILIAC
HYPOGASTRIC
LEFT ILIAC
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Organ System Overview

Integumentary
Forms the external body covering
Protects deeper tissue from injury

Synthesizes vitamin D Location of cutaneous nerve receptors
Figure CA Arellano University College of Nursing /1.2a1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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Skeletal
Protects and supports body organs
Provides muscle attachment for movement Site of blood cell formation

Stores minerals
Figure CA Arellano University College of Nursing /1.2b1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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Muscular
Allows locomotion Maintains posture Produces heat
Figure CA Arellano University College of Nursing /1.2c 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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Nervous
Fast-acting control system Responds to internal and external change Activates muscles and glands
Figure 1.2d Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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Endocrine
Secretes regulatory hormones
Growth Reproduction
Metabolism
Figure 1.2e Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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Cardiovascular
Transports materials in body via blood pumped by heart
Oxygen Carbon dioxide Nutrients Wastes
Figure 1.2f Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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Lymphatic
Returns fluids to blood vessels Disposes of debris Involved in immunity
Figure 1.2g Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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Respiratory
Keeps blood supplied with oxygen Removes carbon dioxide
Figure 1.2h Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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Digestive
Breaks down food
Allows for nutrient absorption into blood

Eliminates indigestible material
Figure 1.2i Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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Urinary
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
Maintains acid base balance

Regulation of materials Water Electrolytes
Figure 1.2j Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
Slide 25 1.13
Reproductive
Production of offspring
Figure 1.2k
Slide 26 1.14
Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
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Biochemistry: Essentials for Life

Organic compounds
Contain carbon Most are covalently bonded Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)
Inorganic compounds
Lack carbon
Tend to be simpler compounds

Example: H2O (water)
Slide 28 2.21
Important Inorganic Compounds

Water
Most abundant inorganic compounds
Vital properties
High heat capacity Polarity/solvent properties Chemical reactivity Cushioning
Slide 29 2.22

Salts Easily dissociate into ions in the presence of water Vital to many body functions Include electrolytes which conduct electrical currents
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Acids
Can release detectable hydrogen ions
Bases
Proton acceptors
Neutralization reaction
Acids and bases react to form water and a salt
Slide 31 2.24
pH
Measures relative concentration of hydrogen ions
pH 7 = neutral pH below 7 = acidic
pH above 7 = basic
Buffers Chemicals that can regulate pH change
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Slide 32 2.25
Important Organic Compounds

Carbohydrates
Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Include sugars and starches

Classified according to size
Monosaccharides simple sugars

Disaccharides two simple sugars joined by dehydration synthesis
Polysaccharides long branching chains of linked simple sugars

Slide 33 2.26
Lipids
Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen
Insoluble in water
Slide 34 2.29
Proteins
Made of amino acids
Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
Slide 2.33a 35

Account for over half of the bodys organic matter
Provides for construction materials for body tissues

Plays a vital role in cell function
Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies
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Enzymes
Act as biological catalysts Increase the rate of chemical reactions
Figure 2.16
Slide 37 2.34

Nucleic Acids
Provide blueprint of life
Nucleotide bases
A = Adenine G = Guanine C = Cytosine T = Thymine
U = Uracil
Make DNA and RNA
Slide 38 2.35

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Organized by complimentary bases to form double helix Replicates before cell division Provides instruction for every protein in the body
Figure 2.17c
Slide 39 2.36

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Chemical energy used by all cells Energy is released by breaking high energy phosphate bond ATP is replenished by oxidation of food fuels
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Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
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Cells and Tissues

Carry out all chemical activities needed to sustain life Cells are the building blocks of all living things
Tissues are groups of cells that are similar in structure and function -epithelial, muscle, nervous, connective
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Anatomy of the Cell

Cells are not all the same
All cells share general structures

Cells are organized into three main regions
Nucleus Cytoplasm Plasma membrane
Figure 3.1a Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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The Nucleus
Control center of the cell
Contains genetic material (DNA)
Three regions
Nuclear membrane Nucleolus
Figure 3.1b Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
Chromatin
Slide 3.3 44
Cytoplasmic Organelles
Figure 3.4
Slide 45 3.10
Cellular Physiology: Membrane Transport

Membrane Transport movement of substance into and out of the cell
Transport is by two basic methods

Passive transport - No energy is required Active transport - The cell must provide metabolic energy
Slide 46 3.20
Solutions and Transport

Solution homogeneous mixture of two or more components
Solvent dissolving medium
Solutes components in smaller quantities within a solution
Slide 47 3.21
Passive Transport Processes

Diffusion
Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within a solution
Movement is from high concentration to low concentration, or down a concentration gradient
Figure 3.8 Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3
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Diffusion
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Types of diffusion
Simple diffusion
Unassisted process
Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or small enough to pass through membrane pores Facilitated Substances require a protein carrier for passive Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 transport
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Diffusion through the Plasma Membrane
Figure 3.9
Slide 51 3.25

Osmosis simple diffusion of water
Highly polar water easily crosses the plasma membrane
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Osmosis
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Filtration
Water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure A pressure gradient must exist Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a high pressure area to a lower pressure area
Slide 54 3.26
Active Transport Processes

Transport substances that are unable to pass by diffusion
Too large
Insoluble
Against a concentration gradient
Two common forms of active transport

Solute pumping Bulk transport
Slide 55 3.27

Solute pumping
Amino acids, some sugars & ions
ATP energizes protein carriers,
Slide 3.28a 56

Bulk transport
Exocytosis
Moves materials out of the cell Material is carried in a membranous vesicle
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Bulk transport
Endocytosis
Extracellular substances are engulfed by being enclosed in a membranous vescicle Types of endocytosis
Phagocytosis cell eating Pinocytosis cell drinking
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Cell Life Cycle

Cells have two major periods
Interphase Cell grows Cell carries on metabolic processes Cell division Cell replicates itself Function is to produce more cells for growth and repair processes
Slide 59 3.31
Events of Cell Division

Mitosis
Division of the nucleus
Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm
Begins when mitosis is near completion

Results in the formation of two daughter cells
Slide 60 3.33
Stages of Mitosis
Interphase
No cell division occurs The cell carries out normal metabolic activity and growth
Prophase
First part of cell division
Centromeres migrate to the poles
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Stages of Mitosis
Metaphase
Spindle from centromeres are attached to chromosomes that are aligned in the center of the cell
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Stages of Mitosis
Anaphase
Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles
The cell begins to elongate
Telophase
Daughter nuclei begin forming
A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to form
Slide 63 3.35
Stages of Mitosis
Figure 3.14; 1
Slide 3.36a 64
Stages of Mitosis
Figure 3.14; 2
Slide 3.36b 65
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The Integumentary System

The integumentary system is composed of the:
Skin Appendages
Largest organ of the body
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Functions of the Integumentary system

Gives shape to the body
Protects the body from injury Serves as a barrier to infection
Sensory reception
Thermoregulation Maintenance of water balance
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The EPIDERMIS
Composed mainly of 5 layers:
> stratum corneum: outermost, cornified (keratinized) > stratum lucidum: present only in thick hairless skin > stratum granulosum: impermeable > stratum spinosum > stratum basale: (germinativum) constant cell division Nerves: found in the epidermis- for pain and temperature sensation
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Epidermal Cell Types (4)

1 Keratinocytes
2 Melanocytes 3 Langerhans
4 - Merckel
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Keratinocytes
most numerous (85%)
secrete keratin provides the barrier
function of the epidermis
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Melanocytes
found in the dermis
and basal layer of the epidermis produce melanin protect from UV
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Langerhans cells
members of the immune system, and functioning
as antigen-presenting cells. Found in stratum spinosum.
Merckel cells
found in the basal layer and functions as
mechanoreceptors.
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The DERMIS
loose connective tissue, mainly collagen and elastic
and reticular fibers blood vessels Nerves a. Papillary layer- dermal papilla (fingerprints) b. Reticular layer
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Two Dermal Layers
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Subcutaneous Tissue
Contains adipose tissue and larger blood vessels and
nerves May contain the base of hair follicles and sweat glands Functions: caloric reserve, heat insulator, shock absorber
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Sweat glands 2 types

Eccrine: < 0.5mm diameter found anywhere except penis Function in thermoregulation
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Sweat glands 2 types

Apocrine: 3-5mm in

diameter Modified sweat gland found in the axillary, areolar, anal regions secrete odor-producing discharges called pheromones functional at puberty
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Sebaceous or Oil glands

secrete sebum anywhere except on the
palms and soles lubricate hair follicles & skin surface hyperfunctional at puberty
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Hair
arises from hair follicles
which are epidermal invaginations

Associated arrector pili
muscle causes goosebumps
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Nails
like hair, are modified
stratum corneum keratin of nails is harder than that of hair stratum basale of the nail area continuously proliferates and rapidly keratinizes white cuticle of nails is called eponychium
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TACTILE SENSATION
Pacinian Corpuscle
Meissners
Corpuscle Ruffini Corpuscle Krause Corpuscle
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Pacinian corpuscle
found within the dermis and hypodermis surround nerves and look like onions function as mechanoreceptors for pressure &
vibration.
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Meissners corpuscles
present in the dermal papillae surrounds nerves function as mechanoreceptors for fine touch
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Ruffini Corpuscle
Thermoreceptor
for WARM temperature
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Krause Corpuscle
Thermoreceptor
for COLD temperature
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Skeletal system
206 bones
Axial skeleton= 80 Appendicular
skeletons= 126 upper limbs= 64 lower limbs= 62
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functions
Supportive framework
Protect vital organs Hemopoiesis or blood cell formation Storage of minerals Act as biomechanical levers
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Types of Bone
According to location: Axial found along our midline axis Appendicular found in our extremities
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According to shape: LONG BONES- (longer than they are wide, epiphysis,
diaphysis and metaphysis) Example: (upper) clavicle, humerus, radius, and ulna (lower) femur, tibia, fibula *include metacarpals, metatarsals and phalenges SHORT BONES- (lack a long axis and are typically cuboidal) Example: ankle and wrist bone *sesamoid bones-embedded in tendons (patella) FLAT BONES- thin and usually curved, two layers of compact bone separated by spongy bone and marrow Example: sternum, ribs and skull bone IRREGULAR BONES- dont fit any other classification Example: vertebrae, hip bones,ofsome CA 1 - bones Arellano University College Nursing / skull
Cluster 3
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Classification
1. 2. 1.
Based on devt. Membranous Cartilaginous

Based on histology Compact Spongy
2.
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Types of cells
Osteoblast- precursor cells Osteoclast- bone destroyers Osteocytes- mature cells
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Classification of Joints
Synarthroses- barely movable or
nonmovable (SUTURES, GOMPHOSES,
SYNCHONDROSES)
Amphiarthroses- slightly movable

-syndesmoses= have intervening connective tissue that forms interosseous membrane or ligament (tibiofibular, radioulnar) -symphyses= have intervening pad or fibrocartilage (intervertebral joint, symphisis pubis, joint bet. Manubrium and sternum)
Diarthroses- freely movable

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TYPES OF MOVEMENT
*origin immovable *insertion movable
flexion - bending, decreasing the angle between 2 bones extension - straightening out, increasing the angle
between 2 bones abduction - moving the bone away from the midline adduction - moving the bone toward the midline rotation - moving the bone around central axis circumduction - moving the bone so that the end of it describes a circle
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supination - moving the bones of the
forearm so that the radius and ulna are parallel, posterior to anterior pronation - moving the bones of the forearm so that the radius and ulna are not parallel, anterior to posterior position eversion - moving the sole of the foot outward at the ankle and intertarsal joints inversion - moving the sole of the foot inward at the ankle and intertarsal joints
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protraction - moving a part of the body
forward on a plane parallel to the ground retraction - moving a part of the body backward on a plane parallel to the ground elevation - raising a part of the body depression - lowering a part of the body plantar flexion - pointing toes (as a ballerina) away from the body dorsiflexion - pointing toes toward the body opposition move thumb to touch fingertips
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Bone maintenance
1. Local stress-stimulates bone formation 2. Vit. D- inc Ca by increasing GIT
absorption 3. PTH- inc blood Ca by inc bone resorption 4. Calcitonin- inhibits bone resorption
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Bone repair
Hematoma & inflammation
Angiogenesis and cartilage formation Cartilage calcification
Cartilage removal
Bone formation(3-4 mos.)
Remodeling( mos.-yrs)
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Muscles
- tissue composed of fibers or cells - able to contract causing -
movements Maintains posture Stabilizes joints Generates heat highly vascular, excitable, conductive and elastic
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GOLDEN RULES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY

All muscle cross at least one joint
The bulk of muscle lies proximal to the joint
crossed Have at least two attachments: ORIGIN (proximal) and INSERTION (distal) Muscle an only pull; they never push Contraction moves toward the origin
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Naming Skeletal muscle

1. Direction of Muscle Fibers - RECTUS (straight), OBLIQUE 2. Relative Size -MAXIMUS, MINIMUS, LONGUS, BREVIS 3. Number of Origin - BICEPS, TRICEPS, QUADRICEPS 4. Location of Origin and Insertion - STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID
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Naming Skeletal muscle

5. Location - FRONTALIS, TEMPORALIS 6. Shape of Muscle - DELTOID 7. Action of the Muscle -FLEXOR, EXTENSOR, ADDUCTOR
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SUPERFICIAL MUSCLE
1. FACIAL MUSCLE- facial expression - frontalis: raises brow, wrinkles forehead -obicularis oculi: closes eyes -obicularis oris: kissing muscle -zygoamticus: smiling muscle
2. MUSCLE OF MASTICATION - buccinator -masseter -temporalis Arellano3University College of Nursing / CA 1 Cluster
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SUPERFICIAL MUSCLE
3. NECK MUSCLE -platysma: downward sag of mouth -sternocleidomastoid: rotates head, prayer muscle, head flexion (if both contracts)
4. ANTERIOR TRUNK MUSCLE - pectoralis major -intercoastal muscles: external (for inhalation), internal (for exhalation)
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SUPERFICIAL MUSCLE
- Muscles of abdominal girdle: rectus abdominis, external oblique, internal oblique, transversus abdominis 5. POSTERIOR TRUNK MUSCLE -trapezius -latissimus dorsi -deltoid
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SUPERFICIAL MUSCLE
6. UPPER ARM MUSCLE - biceps brachii- elbow flexor -triceps brachii- elbow extensor
7. FOREARM MUSCLE - anterior compartment: flexors and pronators of wrist and hands - posterior compartment: extensors and suppinators of wrist and hands
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SUPERFICIAL MUSCLE
8. HIP MUSCLES -gluteus maximus: hip extensor -gluteus medius: hip adbuctor -iliopsas: hip flexor - adductor muscle: hip adductor 9. FEMORAL MUSCLE -Quadriceps (knee extensors): rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius - hamstring (knee flexors): biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Cluster 3
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SUPERFICIAL MUSCLE
10. MUSCLE OF LOWER LEG - tibialis anetrior: dorsiflexion, inversion -fibularis: plantar flexion, eversion - gastrocnemius: toe dancer muscle, plantar flexion
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TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

*tension develops in the muscles according to the sliding filament model 1. isotonic - muscle shortens during contraction ie smiling, bending the knee - successful sliding of myofilaments 2.isometric - muscle does not shorten during contraction ie lifting a 400 pound dresser, pushing against the wall with bent elbows - muscle unable to slide because pushed against immovable object
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Tendon
- attaches muscle to bone - provide durability and conservation of space - made up of tough collagenic fiber
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ligament
binds joints together, connects articular bones and cartilage
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cartilage
- non vascular tissue - can be permanent or temporary - found chiefly in the joints, thorax, larynx and trachea
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Bursae
- Sac containing fluid that are located around the joints to prevent friction
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The Skull
8 cranial bones 14 facial bones 6 small bones in
the middle ear
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Neurocranium
Frontal Parietal
Occipital
Ethmoid Sphenoid Temporal
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Viscerocranium
Maxilla Nasal Zygomatic Mandible Vomer Lacrimal
Palatine
Inferior nasal
concha
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skull
Sutures Coronal- bet. Parietal & frontal bones Sagittal- bet. 2 parietal bones Lambdoid- bet. Parietal & occipital Bregma- intersection of coronal & sagittal- ant. Fontanel Pterion- where sphenoid, parietal, frontal & temporal bones converge TMJ
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Fontanelles or soft spots

Fibrous connective
tissue or cartilage that occur at the angles of the parietal bone Anterior closes at 1218 months Posterior closes at 34 months
The Auditory Ossicles

sense vibration 3 inner ear bones:
malleus or hammer articulates with eardrum incus or anvil articulates with malleus & stapes stapes or stirrup articulates with oval window
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Face
Scalp- frontalis & occipitalis
Ear- auricular
Orbital rim- orbicularis oculi Nose- nasalis
Neck-platysma
Lips- labii superioris, zygomaticusdepressor labii/angularis,
buccinator, orbicularis oris
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Neck
Bones Cervical vertebrae- atlas,axis & C3-C7 hyoid Larynx cricoid
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Neck
Anterior Triangle internal jugular v. Carotid a. Vagus n. Hypoglossal n. Hyoid ms. Submental nodes Posterior triangle Accessory n. Branches of brachial plexus Subclavian a Subclavian v.
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The Vertebral Column or Spine

Supports the body &
bears its weight Regions: 7 cervical 12 thoracic 5 lumbar Sacrum Coccygeal S-shaped Vertebrae are attached to each other via synovial joints & by intervertebral discs
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The Normal Spine

Has normal curves: lordosis cervical, lumbar concaving kyphosis thoracic convexity intervertebral discs maintain
flexibility, absorb shock; outer annulus fibrosis, inner gelatinous nucleus pulposus
With age, loss of H2O content causes decrease in disc height
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Thorax
ribs
1-7= true 8-10= false 11-12= floating Sternum Manubrium Sternal angle of louis Body of sternum
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Muscles Internal intercostals- ant, inf External intercoastals- post, inf Subcostalis Transversus thoracis
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12 pairs of thoracic nerves-
11 intercostal n., 1 subcostal n. Intercostal arteries-12 pairs of post and ant, =11 inter, 1 subcostal Intercostal vessels Lymph drainage
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Abdomen
5 lumbar vertebrae Ilium- iliac fossa, tubercle & crest Pubis- symphisis, tubercle, crest Surface anatomy: Linea alba- fr xiphoid to pubis Linea semilunaris- bilateral, lat to rectus abdominis Inguinal groove
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Muscles
Anterior Extrernal oblique- ant, inf Internal oblique-post, inf Transversus abdominis Rectus abdominis Posterior Quadratus luborum Psoas major-chief flexor of hip Iliacus- joins psoas
Transversalis fascia- lines abd cavity, deep inguinal ring is an outpouching of Nursing / CA 1 Arellano University College
Cluster 3
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Parts of the Hip bone
Looks like two fish eating a
butterfly ASIS = anterior superior iliac spine, important landmark PSIS lies deep to a dimple ischial tuberosity part we sit on symphysis pubis fibroelastic connection between two pubic bones acetabulum depression for the head of the femur greater sciatic notch opening for sciatic nerve lesser sciatic notch obturator foramen for obturator nerve linea terminalis, or pelvic brim separates false pelvis above from true pelvis below
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Pelvis
Pelvic girdle- anteriorly bounded by hip bone, posteriorly by
sacrum and coccyx Pelvic cavity Major (false)- above pelvic brim Minor (True)- below Pelvic diaphragm- muscular floor Levator ani- pubococcygeus, puborectalis, iliococcygeus coccygeus
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Broader and
Female pelvis
more shallow Pelvic inlet is larger & more circular Ischial spines are shorter with greater distance bet them Greater angle bet the pubic bones Adapted for a baby & delivery
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The Upper Extremity

Consists of 30 bones:
Humerus upper
arm Ulna - forearm Radius - forearm Carpal bones - wrist Metacarpals - palm Phalanges - fingers
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Upper Limb
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Hand bones, Palm: Carpals2 rows 8 short bones in

Proximal: (r-u) scaphoid,
lunate, triquetrium, pisiform Distal: (r-u) trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate Scared Lovers Try Positions That They Cant Handle If you fall and land on your hand, which bone is most likely to break? Colles fx = dinner fork deformity of the wrist due to fx of the radius
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The Lower Extremity

Consists of 30 bones:
Femur upper leg or
thigh Patella or kneecap Tibia & fibula lower leg or shin Tarsal bones back part of foot & heel Metatarsals main part of the foot Phalanges - toes
Lower extremeties
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Physiology of muscle contraction
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Energy Requirements for Muscle Contraction

Energy is produced by anaerobic
(without oxygen) or aerobic (with oxygen) respiration. After intense exercise, the rate of aerobic metabolism remains elevated to repay the oxygen debt.
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Energy Requirements for Muscle Contraction

ANAEROBIC
REQUIRES OXYGEN NO. OF ATP PRODUCED NO MINIMAL
AEROBIC
YES MAXIMAL
SPEED OF ATP PRODUCTION

SUBSTRATES END-PRODUCTS
FAST
GLUCOSE ATP + LACTIC ACID
SLOW
FATS, GLUCOSE, PROTEINS ATP+ CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER
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The Skeletal Muscle: Structure
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The DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Alimentary tract composed of organs, the
primary function of which is the ingestion, digestion and absorption of nutrients
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The GIT
The wall is divided into Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis layer (inner circular and outer longitudinal) and Serosa/adventitia
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Fig. 16.2
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GENERAL FUNCTIONS

Ingestion of food into the mouth Moves food along the digestive tract Mechanically digests the food into small particles Chemically digests the food into simple molecules Absorbs nutrients into the portal and lymphatic circulation
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The MOUTH
Extends from the lips to the
orophaynx Initial digestion of carbohydrates occurs here (salivary amylase) Contains the teeth, tongue, palate, salivary glands and tonsils
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Salivary glands
1. Parotid= secretes purely serous,
Stensens duct 2.Submandibular/submaxillay= secretes mixed saliva, with Whartons duct 3. Sublingual= secretes mixed saliva, with two ducts- duct of Rivinus and duct of Bartholin
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The Esophagus
Muscular collapsible tube
extending from the pharynx to the stomach With upper esophageal sphincter and lower esophageal sphincter 10 inches long
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The GIT ANATOMY

The Esophagus The upper third contains skeletal muscles The middle third contains mixed skeletal and smooth muscles The lower third contains smooth muscles and the esophago-gastric/ cardiac sphincter is found here
180
The Esophagus
Function: to propel
food to the stomach

181
The Stomach
J-shaped organ in the
epigastrium Contains four partsthe fundus, the cardia, the body and the pylorus
182
The cardiac sphincter
prevents the reflux of the contents into the esophagus The pyloric sphincter regulates the rate of gastric emptying into the duodenum Capacity is 1,500 ml!
Cells in the stomach

1. Mucus cells (mucus)
2. Chief cells ( pepsinogen)
3. Parietal Cells (IF, HCl)
184
Small intestine
Characteristics: Provided with mesentery Presence of villi Presence of plicae circularis Lined by simple columnar 20 ft (6m) long
185
186
Parts of Small Intestine

1. DUODENUM- shortest part
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum- longest part
187
Parts of Small Intestine
188
The intestinal glands secrete digestive enzymes
that finalize the digestion of all foodstuff Enzymes for carbohydrates disaccharidases Enzymes for proteins dipeptidases and aminopeptidases Enzyme for lipids intestinal lipase
189
Large intestine
Characteristics Presence of haustra Presence of taenia coli Presence of appendices epiploicae No villi With mesocolon on the appendix, transverse colon and sigmoid colon 5 ft (1.5-1.8 meter long)
190
Parts of the large intestine

Cecum
Appendix Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Sigmoid colon rectum
191
192
The GIT Physiology

Absorbs water
Eliminates wastes Bacteria in the colon synthesize Vitamin K Appendix participates in the immune system
193
Anus
The anal canal is the last
portion of the tract, surrounded by an internal and external anal sphincter
194
The Peritoneum
Serous membrane lining the
abdominal cavity Parietal peritoneumabdominal wall Visceral peritoneum- visceral organs

195
Fig. 16.3
196
The Peritoneum
Retroperitoneal organs are
found posterior to the peritoneum- kidney, pancreas, duodenum, ascending and descending colon, rectum
197
Mesentery
This is a peritoneum
folded upon itself extending from the organ to the abdominal wall
198
Blood supply of the GIT

Branches of the celiac trunk
Left gastric artery
Hepatic artery
Superior mesenteric artery
199
Accessory organs
Pancreas A pistol-shaped organ both an endocrine and exocrine gland Parts: head, body and tail Ducts: major is Wirsung, minor is Santorini
200
201
Pancreatic secretions
1. Bicarbonate- to neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach- stimulated by secretin 2. Pancreatic amylase- for carbohydrate digestion
202
Pancreatic secretions
3. Pancreatic lipase- for fat digestion 4. Trypsin and chymotrypsinfor protein digestion
203
Accessory organ
Liver Largest internal organ Located on the right upper quadrant With right and left lobes
204
Liver Function Normalphysiology

1. Stores glycogen
and Pathophysiology function Abnormality in

= Hypoglycemia
2. Synthesizes proteins
3. Synthesizes globulins 4. Synthesizes Clotting factors 5. Secreting bile
= Hypo-proteinemia
=Decreased Antibody formationrisk for INFECTION = Bleeding tendencies = Jaundice and pruritus
6. Converts ammonia to urea

7. Stores Vitamims and minerals 8. Metabolizes estrogen
=Hyper-ammonemia
=Deficiencies of Vit and min
= Gynecomastia, testes atrophy

205
206
Accessory organ
Gallbladder Pear-shaped organ on the right upper quadrant below the liver Parts: fundus, body and neck store & concentrate bile
207
208
PHYSIOLOY OF THE GIT

209
Movements
Mouth and esophagus: Deglutition 1. Voluntary phase- food bolus is pushed by tongue to the pharynx 2. Pharyngeal phase- reflex action 3. Esophageal phase- peristaltic waves moves the food towards the stomach
210
Stomach movement
Mixing waves
Peristaltic movements
211
Fig. 16.12
212
Regulation of stomach secretions 1. Cephalic phase- stomach secretions are initiated by the sight, smell, thought and taste of food
213
Regulation of stomach secretions 2. Gastric phase- secretions are produced upon stomach distention
214
Regulation of stomach secretions

3. Intestinal phase- acidic chyme from the stomach passes into the duodenum causing inhibition of gastric secretions
215
Fig. 16.22
216
217
Large Intestine: secretion and movement

Mucus for mucosal protection
Mass movement- short peristaltic movement

218
Large Intestine: secretion and movement

Defecation reflex- moves the feces to the internal anal sphincter, mediated by the parasympathetic nerves Distention causes the reflex
219
220
221
Major functions
Eliminates wastes
Controls blood and fluid
volume Regulates acid-base balance Regulates RBC production by erythropoietin

222
The Kidney
Retroperitoneal organ surrounded by
capsule and fats renal cortex ( where nephrons are located) renal medulla ( where collecting ducts are found)
223
224
The Nephron
Functional unit of the kidney that produces
urine by filtration Composed of

Efferent arteriole Glomerulus Afferent arteriole Bowmans capsule
Convoluted tubules- proximal, loop of Henle and
distal
225
226
Special cells in the nephron

Juxtaglomerular cells- secretes renin and erythropoietin
Podocytes
227
Blood supply of the kidney

Renal artery- branch of the
abdominal aorta Renal vein- drains into the inferior venal cava
228
Renal pelvis
Funnel-shaped expanded portion of
the ureter Formed by the calyces Collects urine from the kidney
229
The Ureter
Left and right long slender tube w/ smooth muscles and transitional epithelium w/ innervations from the sympathetic and parasympathetic
230
231
The urinary bladder

Hollow pyramid shaped organ located in
the pelvis Lined with transitional epithelium With thick detrusor muscles
232
Fig. 18.17
233
Urethra
Tube extending from the urinary bladder to the external urethral orifice
1 inches in females
3 parts in Males
1. Prostatic urethra- most dilatable 2. Membranous urethra- least dilatable and shortest 3. Penile urethra- longest
234
235
Renal Physiology
Urine formation 1. Urinary blood flow 2. Glomerular filtration 3. Tubular reabsorption 4. tubular secretion
236
237
238
239
Filtration- water and smaller solutes Secretion- water, glucose and amino acids
Secretion- H, K, crea, drugs
240
241
242
243
244
Internal Male Reproductive Organs

1. Testes 2. Ducts- epididymis, vas deferens and ejaculatory duct 3. Glands- prostate and Cowpers 4. Seminal vesicle
The testes
Male gonad housed in the scrotum
Divided into lobules containing tubules
and cells Sperm cells are produced in the seminiferous tubules Leydig cells secrete testosterone
246
Spermatogenesis
Begins during puberty Occurs in the seminiferous tubules Spermatogonia---MITOSIS ---primary
spermatocytes---MEOSIS---secondary spermatocyte---spermatids---go to the epididymis--- spermatozoa
247
248
Ducts
1. Epididymis- coiled tube 2. Vas deferens- long tube from the epididymis to the seminal vesicle 3. Ejaculatory duct- formed by the union of the vas deferens and the duct of the seminal vesicle
249
Glands
1. Prostate gland- glandular and muscular tissue produces slightly acidic fluid (20% of semen) 2. Seminal Vesicle- convoluted pouch, secretes alkaline fluid and fructose (bulk of the semen) 3. Cowpers glands- secrete mucus for lubrication
250
Fig. 19.5a
251
External genitalia
1. Scrotum- two chambered sac contains the testes 2. Penis- erectile tissue consists of two corpora cavernosa and one corpora spongiosa With 3 parts- bulb, shaft and glans
252
SEMEN: contains spermatozoa and fructose-rich nutrients. During ejaculation, semen receives contributions of fluid from
Prostate gland Seminal vesicle Epididymis Bulbourethral gland
Average pH = 7.5 Ave. amt.= 2.5 -5 ml. It can live with in the female genital
tract for about 24 to 72 hours. (60-200 million/ml of ejaculation ave. of 400 million/ ejaculation ) 90 seconds- cervix 5 minutes.- end of fallopian tube
253
Parts of the Female Reproductive System

EXTERNAL (vulva)
1. Mons pubis 2. Labia majora 3. Labia majora 4. Clitoris
INTERNAL
1. Ovary 2. Fallopian tubes 3. Uterus 4. Vaginal canal
5. Hymen
6. Vestibule
7. Pudendal cleft University College of Nursing / CA 1 Arellano

Cluster 3
254
The Internal Organs

OVARY
Firm almond shaped
organ covered by the peritoneum Two parts: CORTEX- follicles are found Medulla- connective tissue
255
Fallopian tubes Bilateral ducts extends laterally from the uterus 4 parts 1. Infundibulum- funnel shape, with fimbriae 2. Ampulla- widest part; usual site of FERTILIZATION 3. Isthmus- narrowest part 4. Interstitial or Intramural- embedded in the uterine wall FUNCTION: Transport of ovum
256
The Internal Organs
Fig. 20.2
257
258
The Uterus
Pear-shaped organ with a cavity
3 main parts 1. Fundus- upper dome-shape part 2. Corpus or Body- broad part 3. Cervix- narrow lower part
Isthmus- junction between the body and the cervix
POSITION: Anteverted and Anteflexed
259
260
The Uterus
The uterine wall is made up of three layers 1. Epimetrium- superficial part surrounded by the perimetrium 2. Myometrium- thickest muscular part 3. Endometrium- inner layer FUNCTION: Fetal development in pregnancy
261
The endometrium
3 layers of the endometrium 1. Stratum Functionale
Stratum
compactum Stratum spongiosum
2. Stratum basale or germinativum

262
Uterine ligaments
Broad ligament
Round ligament
Cardinal ligament
Utero-sacral ligament
263
Fig. 19.8
264
Vaginal canal
Connects the cervix to the vestibule
Fibromuscular canal lined with mucus
and covered with hymen The remnant of hymen is called CARUNCULAE MYRTIFORMIS Function: organ of copulation and passageway of baby
265
266
External genitalia
1. Vestibule- space between the labia minora 2. Pudendal cleft- space between the labia majora 3. Clitoris- erectile tissue, homologue of penis
267
External genitalia
4. Labia majora- thick fold of skin, homologue of scrotum 5. Labia Minora- thin fold of skin devoid of hairs 6. Mons pubis/veneris- elevated area above the labia
268
Mammary gland
Modified sweat gland Consists of glandular and adipose tissue P-rolactin O-xytocin P-rogesterone E-strogen
269
270
271
MENSTRUATION:
Menstrual cycle/ female
reproductive cycle- 30-80 cc (60 cc ave.) of blood, epithelial cells and mucus are being discharged 21-35 days
272
Maturation of Oocytes:
first formed in utero
- 5 to7 million; first 5 months in utero - 2 million immature oocytes per ovary at birth - 2 million in BOTH ovaries 7 yrs of age only - 500,000/ovary 22y/o only - 300,000/ovary Reproductive age only - 300400 oocytes Menopause - none
273
Fig. 19.14
274
The uterine cycle

Consists of 3 phases 1. Menstrual phase 2. Proliferative phase 3. Secretory phase
275
276
Uterine Cycle: Menstrual phase

Day 1- day 5
Stratum functionale (compactum
and spongiosum) is shed
277
Uterine cycle: proliferative Phase

Day 5- day 14
Epithelial cells of functional multiply
and form glands Due to the influence of estrogen
278
Uterine cycle: Secretory phase

Day 15- day 28
Endometrium becomes thicker and glands
secrete nutrients Uterus is prepared for implantation Due to progesterone If no fertilization constriction vessels menstruation
279
280
OVARIAN Cycle
Consists of three phases 1. Pre-ovulatory : follicular phase 2. Ovulatory phase 3. Post-ovulatory : Luteal phase
281
Ovarian Cycle; preovulatory/follicular

Variable in length: day 6- day 13
Dominant follicle matures and
becomes grafian follicle with primary oocyte FSH increases initially then decreases because of estrogen increase
282
Ovarian cycle: Ovulatory phase

Day 14
Rupture of the grafian follicle
releasing the secondary oocyte Due to the LH surge MITTELSCHMERZ- pain during rupture of follicle
283
OVARIAN cycle: Post-ovulatory: luteal phase

Day 15- day 28
MOST CONSTANT 14 days after ovulation Corpus luteum secretes Progesterone
If no fertilization, corpus luteum will become
corpus albicans then degenerate Decreased estrogen and progesterone

284
Fig. 19.11
285
Hormonal cycle
1. Menstrual phase Decreased Estrogen, decreased progesterone, decreased FSH and decreased LH 2. Proliferative/ Pre-ovulatory phase Increased FSH and Estrogen in small amounts
286
Hormonal Cycle
3. Ovulatory phase Increased FSH, Increased LH (surge) Increased Estrogen 4. Post ovulatory/luteal Phase Increased Estrogen, increased progesterone, decreased FSH and LH
287
288

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Anatomy and Physiology

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1

The Human Body An Orientation

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -

Anatomy Levels of Study

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -

Anatomy Levels of Study

Can only be viewed with a microscope

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Cluster 3

SUPERFICIAL (L., superficialis) toward or on

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Cluster 3

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Cluster 3

RIGHT LOWER QUADRANT

RIGHT LOWER QUADRANT

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Cluster 3

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Cluster 3

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Cluster 3

Organ System Overview

Protects deeper tissue from injury

Organ System Overview

Provides muscle attachment for movement Site of blood cell formation

Organ System Overview

Organ System Overview

Organ System Overview

Organ System Overview

Organ System Overview

Organ System Overview

Organ System Overview

Allows for nutrient absorption into blood

Organ System Overview

Maintains acid base balance

Organ System Overview

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Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 Cluster 3

Biochemistry: Essentials for Life

Tend to be simpler compounds

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -

Important Inorganic Compounds

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -

Important Inorganic Compounds

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -

Important Inorganic Compounds

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -

Important Organic Compounds

Include sugars and starches

Monosaccharides simple sugars

Polysaccharides long branching chains of linked simple sugars

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -

Important Organic Compounds

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -

Important Organic Compounds

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -

Important Organic Compounds

Provides for construction materials for body tissues

Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cluster 3

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -

Arellano University College of Nursing / CA 1 -

Important Organic Compounds

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