INTEL

WHAT IS MICRO PROCESSOR ?

At abstract level, we can think as a small silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers, the terms microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.

WHY DO WE CALL THIS SILICON CHIP AS MICROPROCESSORbreak into ? The word MICROPROCESSOR can be
two parts

Micro Processor

Here micro indicates each component in this IC occupies only few microns of space while integration. This is possible because of ULSI Technology where millions of components fix into a single chip. Processor word indicates, this Digital IC is capable of perform operations like processing, controlling and much more. Thus Microprocessors referred as the Brain Of A Computer. Most of the time Microprocessor even referred as p, Because of its size and operation.

WHO INVENTED THIS FIRST MICROPROCESSOR ?

Intel 4004 - The World's First Single Chip Microprocessor In November, 1971, a company called Intel publicly introduced the world's first single chip microprocessor The Intel 4004 invented by Intel engineers Federico Faggin, Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor. After the invention of integrated circuit revolutionized computer design, The Intel 4004 chip took the integrated circuit down one step further by placing all the parts that made a computer think (i.e. central processing unit, memory, input and output controls) on one small chip.

WHAT WAS THEN ?

After huge success , Demand for faster and smarter processor increased. Then along with INTEL, new companies emerged AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) NEC (Nippon Electric Company) Mitsubishi OKI( Kibataro Oki Companies) Siemens Toshiba USSR Each company has its own disadvantages over each other. advantages and

HOW CAN WE SAY THIS PROCESSOR IS GOOD ?

On basis of three main factors we can conclude advancement of processors

1. Instruction set: The set of instructions that

the microprocessor can execute. 2. Bandwidth : The number of bits processed in a single instruction. 3. Clock Speed : clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can execute .

For example, a 32-bit microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bit microprocessor that runs at 25MHz

In addition to bandwidth and clock speed, microprocessors are classified as being either RISC (reduced instruction set computer) or CISC (complex instruction set computer).

INTEL FAMILY LIST

FEATURES INTEL-4004
Maximum clock speed was 740 kHz Instruction cycle time: 10.8 s (8 clock cycles / instruction cycle) Instruction execution time 1 or 2 instruction cycles (10.8 or 21.6 s), 46300 to 92600 instructions per second Separate program and data storage. which use separate buses access, the 4004, with its need to keep pin count down, used a single multiplexed 4-bit bus for transferring: 1. 12-bit addresses 2. 8-bit instructions 3. 4-bit data words Instruction set contained 46 instructions Register set contained 16 registers of 4 bits each.

INTEL 8085-Features
INTEL 8085 is an 8-bit microprocessor. The data word size of the 8085 microprocessor is 8-bits. Hence has 8-bit data bus. The address size of 8085 microprocessor is 16-bits. Hence uses 16-bit address bus. It can directly process on 8-bits of data in single operation, hence it is known to be an 8bit microprocessor. It can directly address 216 = 65,536 bytes i.e., 64 Kbytes (64 K memory locations) using 16bits of address. 8085 microprocessor is fabricated using NMOS technology and comes in an 40-pin DIP(dual-in-line) package. It requires a single power supply of +5V. The NMOS 8085 is available in two versions 8085A and 8085A-2 with maximum internal clock frequency of 3.03 MHz and 5 MHz respectively and require crystal of 6.06 MHz and 10 MHz to be connected them respectively. It has 80 basic instructions and 246 opcodes.

INTEL 8086-Features

8086 has 16-bit ALU; this means 16-bit numbers are directly processed It has 16-bit data bus, so it can read data or write data to memory or I/O ports either 16 bits or 8 bits at a time. It has 20 address lines, so it can address up to 220 i.e. 1048576 = 1Mbytes of memory (words i.e. 16 bit numbers are stored in consecutive memory locations). Due to the 1Mbytes memory size multiprogramming is made feasible as well as several multiprogramming features have been incorporated in 8086 design. 8086 includes few features, which enhance multiprocessing capability (it can be used with math coprocessors like 8087, I/O processor 8089 etc). Operates on +5v supply and single phase (single line) clock frequency.(Clock is generated by separate peripheral chip 8284). 8086 comes with different versions. 8086 runs at 5 MHz, 8086-2 runs at 8 MHz, 8086-1 runs at 10 MHz.

It comes in 40-pin configuration with HMOS technology having around 20,000 transistors in its circuitry. It has multiplexed address and data bus like 8085 due to which the pin count is Reduced considerably. Higher Throughput (Speed) (This is achieved by a concept called pipelining).

INTEL PENTIUM PROCESSOR-FEATURES

The Intel 8085 processor can execute only one instruction at a time. With superscalar execution, the Pentium processor can sometimes execute two instructions simultaneously. Pipelining, allows the processor to overlap multiple instructions so that it takes less time to execute two instructions in a row. Because of its superscalar architecture, the Pentium processor has two independent processor pipelines. 64-Bit Bus: With its 64-bit-wide external data bus the Pentium processor Floating-Point Optimization: The Pentium processor executes individual instructions faster through execution pipelining, which allows multiple floating-point instructions to be executed at the same time.

WHAT MAKES PENTIUM MUCH POPULAR THAN OTHER ?

Pentium processors become popular because of its Enhanced features and the capability.

P4 is GREAT

uP CAPABLITIES AND FEATURES CAN BE INCREASED By increasing the clock frequency

By increasing the word-width By having a more effective caching Algorithm and the right cache size By adding more functional units (e.g. ALUs, FPUs, Vector/SIMD units, etc.) Improving the architecture. By fabrication of uP using some advanced nano material to decrease heat generation. By using multi core instead of single core processors

MULTI CORE PROCESSORS

Processors were originally developed with only one core. The core is the part of the processor that actually performs the reading and executing of instructions. A multi-core processor is a single component with two or more independent actual processors in a single chip package. A multi-core processor Implements multiprocessing in a single physical package. Designers may couple cores in a multi-core device tightly or loosely. For example, cores may or may not share caches, and they may implement message passing or shared memory inter-core communication methods.

Common network topologies to interconnect cores include bus, ring, 2-dimensional mesh, and crossbar Multi-core processors are widely used across many application domains including generalpurpose , embedded, network, digital signal processing (DSP), and graphics.

The improvement in performance gained by the use of a multi-core processor depends very much on the software algorithms used and their implementation. In particular, possible gains are limited by the fraction of the software that can be parallelized to run on multiple cores simultaneously; In the best case, so-called embarrassingly parallel problems may realize speedup factors near the number of cores, or even more if the problem is split up enough to fit within each core's cache The parallelization of software is a significant ongoing topic of research . use of much slower main system memory.