Temperature

Atoms and molecules are continually in motion. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy associated with that motion.

The relative warmth or coolness of an object or a system is related to that motion and is measured by its temperature.
The physical properties of most materials change when they are heated, providing a basis for measuring temperature. (e.g. a thermometer is based on thermal expansion of a liquid).

Temperature Scales
Phenomenon Absolute zero Fahrenheit -459 Celsius -273 Kelvin 0

Freezing point of water

Boiling point of water

32
212

0
100

273
373

Corona of the sun

17,999,541

9,999,727

10,000,000

The Kelvin or absolute scale is the physical temperature scale calibrated in terms of the mean internal kinetic energy of a system.

Heat

Heat is the energy in transit from a warmer body to a cooler body (it never flows naturally from a cooler body to a warmer body). A body may absorb or give off heat but does not contain heat. The total inventory of all the energy inside an object or a system is called its internal energy. A cup of hot water has a higher temperature than a bucket of warm water, but the water in the bucket may contain more internal energy. Both transfer heat to the room as they cool.

Units for Heat

Since heat is transferred energy, it is measured in energy units (joules). Heat was historically measured in calories: 1 calorie is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 degree Celsius. 1 calorie = 4.2 joules. 1 food calorie = 1 Calorie = 1,000 calories = 4200 joules. A candy bar releases 500 Calories (500,000 calories or 2,100,000 joules) when consumed (or burned)!

Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

Some

substances require more heat to change their temperature than do others.

The

specific heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of that substance by 1 degree.
has the highest specific heat capacity of almost any known substance.

Water

Climates

are moderated by the proximity of large bodies of water (water has roughly 5

times the specific heat capacity of soil or rock).

Thermal Expansion

When the temperature of a substance is increased, the atoms or molecules jiggle faster and move further apart on average. The result is called thermal expansion.

Cooling a material has the opposite effect.

For the same temperature change, some materials expand more than others.

Most long bridges have expansion joints to allow for expansion and contraction caused by temperature changes.

Expansion of Water has an unusual Liquid water

property: It contracts as its temperature increases from 0C to 4C, then expands as the temperature is further increased. When a substance expands, its density decreases, so water is most dense at 4C

The coldest water resides at

the surface and ice forms on the top. (lucky for the fish!)

Heat Transfer
Heat transfer occurs naturally from warmer to colder objects or systems by conduction from one part of an object or system to another or between objects or systems that are in physical contact. convection due to the motion of a fluid under the influence of gravity. radiation that involves the emission or absorption of light by all objects or systems due to the internal motions of electrons and protons. Heat transfer occurs from colder to warmer objects or systems only if net work is done on the system.

Heat Transfer by Conduction

If a source of heat is applied to one end of an object,
the entire object will eventually become warm.

The rate of heat transfer depends on the type of

material and is highest for materials whose electrons are free to move about (e.g. metals). and aluminum) are also good conductors of heat.

Most good electrical conductors (e.g. silver, copper

Good conductors of heat at room temperature feel

Insulators (e.g. wood, styrofoam, fiberglass) have

cool to the touch because they draw heat from our bodies, which are warmer. outer electrons that are not free to move about and are therefore poor conductors of heat and electricity.

Heat Transfer by Convection

Convection involves the overall motion of a fluid (gas or liquid).

Warm air is less dense than cold air and rises.

Winds are due to convection in the earths atmosphere caused by differential heating.

A gas is cooled when it expands and warmed when it is compressed.

The direction of air convection currents near bodies of water is opposite during the day and at night.

Heat Transfer by Radiation

All matter at temperatures above absolute zero emits radiant energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. The frequency of the electromagnetic waves is proportional to the absolute temperature (in Kelvin) of the emitter.

Temperature: lower

medium

higher

Intensity and Frequency of Electromagnetic Waves

As the temperature of matter increases, both the frequency and intensity of the emitted electromagnetic radiation increase.

The sun emits mostly visible light whereas the earth emits mostly infrared radiation.

Frequency and Wavelength

As the frequency of a wave increases, its wavelength decreases.

1 wavelength ~ frequency

The hotter sun emits shorter

visible waves, while the earth emits longer infrared waves.

Emission, Absorption and Reflection of Electromagnetic Waves

All matter absorbs and emits electromagnetic waves. The best emitters are also the best absorbers. Good reflectors are both poor absorbers and poor emitters. A blackened object heats up more quickly by absorbing radiant energy from the sun, but also cools more quickly.

Greenhouse Effect
Glass

and the earths atmosphere are transparent to visible light but opaque to infrared light.

A greenhouse is warmed by accepting visible solar radiation and trapping infrared radiation emitted by its contents.

Increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere

may be causing a global greenhouse effect.

 Each second, the radiant

energy reaching the earth from the sun is 1400 J.

Solar Power

On average, only half this

energy reaches the surface.

Averaged over day and night, seasons and

locations, this reduces to 180 W/m2 in the U.S.

This average power reaching the roof of a

typical American home is roughly double the requirement for heating and cooling!

Phases and Phase Changes

INCREASING TEMPERATURE SOLID

LIQUID

GAS

PLASMA

Adding or removing energy from matter may cause it to change from one phase to another:

Evaporation from liquid to gas phase. Condensation from gas to liquid phase. Freezing from liquid to solid phase. Melting from solid to liquid phase. Sublimation from solid to gas phase. Ionization from gas to plasma phase.

Evaporation
Evaporation occurs at the surface of a liquid. Molecules whose kinetic energy is greater than the average escape the surface of the liquid most readily. As a result, the average kinetic energy of the molecules that remain in the liquid is lowered, and its temperature is lowered (evaporative cooling). Examples: wet towel, blowing on a hot

Condensation

Molecules may also change from the gas to the liquid phase by condensing. Only the more energetic gas molecules may penetrate the surface and become part of a liquid. Condensation is a warming process. Fog and clouds are formed when slow-moving water molecules collide and coalesce (stick together), forming tiny droplets.

Boiling

Evaporation may occur beneath the surface of a liquid, creating gas bubbles that rise to the surface due to buoyant forces.

The tight lid of a pressure

cooker holds pressurized water vapor above the liquid, inhibiting boiling and raising the boiling temperature.

Boiling results in a cooling of the liquid. At elevations above sea level, water boils at a
lower temperature (e.g. 96C in Reno).

Energy and Phase Changes

The molecular reorganizations that take place during phase transitions require the input or release of energy, but take place at constant temperature as long as the two phases coexist.

An ice-water mixture remains at a constant 0 C. Water boils at a constant 100 C.

Thermal and Phase Constants for Water

Property Value

Specific heat of ice

Heat of fusion of ice Specific heat of water Heat of vaporization Specific heat of steam

2090 J/(kg C)
335,000 J/kg 4186 J/(kg C) 2,255,000 J/kg 2010 J/(kg C)