BANDWIDTH UTILIZATION MULTIPLEXING AND SPREADING

Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to achieve specific goals. It is achieved by utilizing the bandwidth in 2 categories. Multiplexing means combining the number of channels into one. Spreading means that privacy and ant jamming. MULTIPLEXING:Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. In multiplexing, we have n input lines and the output is one line, i.e., many to one the demultiplexer takes the one input line and it gives the number of output line, one to many.

Dividing a link into channels

Here the word link refers to the physical path and the word channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission between a given pair of lines. One link can have many n channels.

Categories of multiplexing

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

FDM is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link is greater than the combined bandwidth of the signals to be transmitted. In FDM, signals are generated by each sending device modulated different carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link. Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal. Channels can be separated by strips of the guard bands to prevent signals from overlapping. FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.

Frequency-division multiplexing

FDM

FDM multiplexing process

FDM demultiplexing

Example

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there are no guard bands. Solution We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a different bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6. We use the 20to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to 28kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to 32kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine them as shown

Example

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent interference? Solution For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the required bandwidth is at least 5 100 + 4 10 = 540 kHz, as shown

Example

ANALOG HIERARCHY
In analog hierarchy,12 voice channels are multiplexed onto a higher bandwidth line to create a group. A group has 48Khz of bandwidth and supports 12 voice channels. At the next level, up to five groups can be multiplexed to create a composite signal called a super group. A super group has a bandwidth of 240Khz and supports up to 60 voice channels. At the next level, 10 super groups are multiplexed to create a master group.

A master group must have 2.40Mhz of bandwidth, but need guard bands between super groups to increase up to 2.52Mhz and 600 voice channels. finally, 6 master groups can be combine into a jumbo group. A jumbo group must have 15.12Mhz(6*2.52Mhz) is 16.984Mhz to allow the guard bands between them.

Analog hierarchy

IMPLEMENTATION FDM can be implemented very easily, such as radio and television broadcasting, there is no need of the physical multiplexer or demultiplexer. As long as the stations agree to send their broadcasts to the air using different carrier frequencies, multiplexing is achieved.

WAVE DIVISION MULTIPLEXING In WDM, is designed to use the high data rate capability of fiber optic cable. The optic cable data rate is higher than the data rate of the metallic cable. WDM is same as the FDM, except the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber optic channels. We are combining different signals of different frequencies, the difference that the frequencies are very high. WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.

Wavelength-division multiplexing

In WDM is very complex, the basic idea is very simple. We want to combine multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the reverse at the demultiplexer. The combining and splitting of the light sources are easily handled by prism. Multiplexer combines several light beams of light, each containing a narrow band of frequencies, into one ouput beam of wider band of frequencies. A demultiplexer can also made to reverse the process.

Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING The TDM is again divided into 2 types. Synchronous TDM Asynchronous TDM Synchronous TDM

In TDM is a digital process that allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link. The TDM allows users to share the link with respect to time. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

TDM

In Synchronous TDM, each input connections has an allotment in the output even if it is not sending data. Time slots and frames Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete one cycle of time slots with one slot dedicated to each sending device. In a system n input lines, each frame has n time slots and one slot is allocated for each unit, one for each input line. If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration of each slot is T/n and the duration of the each frame is T.

Synchronous TDM

Synchronous time-division multiplexing

INTERLEAVING TDM can be visualized as two fast rotating switches, one for the multiplexing and another for demultiplexing. The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed. On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of connection, that connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called interleaving. On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the opportunity to receive a unit from the path. If a source does not have data to send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty.

TDM, Multiplexing

TDM, Demultiplexing

Empty slots

DATA RATE MANAGEMENT one of the problem with TDM, is to handle a gap in the input data lines. If the data rates are not same, there are three categories. Multilevel multiplexing Multiple slot allocation Pulse stuffing Multilevel multiplexing Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of an input line is a multiple of others. We are multiplying two 20kbps into 40kbps as input.

Multilevel multiplexing

Multiple slot allocation It is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame to a single input line. We have one input line is higher data rate than another lines we are dividing that into 2 input lines.

Multiple-slot multiplexing

PULSE STUFFING The bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of each other. One solution is to make the highest input data rate the dominant data rate and then add the dummy bits to the input lines with lower rate. This will increase their rates. This technique is called pulse stuffing, bit stuffing.

Pulse stuffing

FRAME SYNCHRONIZING synchronization is the major in the FDM in multiplexer and demultiplexer. If the both multiplexer and demultiplexer is not synchronized, a bit of channel will not received by the wrong channel. For this reason, synchronization of bits are usually added to the beginning of the each frame. These bits is called framing bits. Follow a pattern frame to frame.

Framing bits

STATISTICAL TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING In STDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output frame. But in Statistical TDM, slots are dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency. Here number of slots in each frame is less than the number of input lines. Multiplexer checks each input line in round robin fashion, it allocates a slot for an input line if the data is available it send the data otherwise it skips the line and checks the next line. Only one difference in STDM and statistical TDM is there will be empty slots in STDM and no empty slots in Statistical TDM.

TDM slot comparison

Since a slot carries both data and an address, the ratio of the data size to address size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient. No synchronization bit is required in Statistical TDM. Here the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the capacities of the each channel.

SPREAD SPECTRUM Multiplexing combines signals from several sources to achieve bandwidth efficiency.

In spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals from different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our goals are to prevent eavesdropping and jamming.
To achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add redundancy.

Spread spectrum achieves its goals through 2 principles. 1. The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by far, larger than what is needed. This allows redundancy. 2. The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the bandwidth Bss must be done by a process that is independent of the original signal. After the signal is created by the source, the spreading process uses a spreading code and spreads the bandwidth.

There are two techniques to spread the bandwidth 1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) 2. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum(DSSS)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) The FHSS technique uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by the source signal. A pseudorandom code generator called pseudorandom noise (PN), creates k-bit pattern for every hopping period Th. The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping period and passes it to the frequency synthesizer. The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that frequency and the source signal modulates the carrier signal.

Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

Frequency selection in FHSS

FHSS cycles

After 8 hopping are completed again the pattern repeats from 101 and the frequency selected is 700Khz, the source modulates this frequency.
Bandwidth sharing

In bandwidth sharing the allocation of the each station in FDM Is 1/M of the bandwidth, but the allocation is fixed. In FHSS, each station uses 1/M of the bandwidth, but the allocation changes hop to hop.

DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD SPECTRUM

In the DSSS technique also expands the bandwidth of the original signal, but the process is different. In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits using a spreading code. Each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips, where the chip rate is n times that of the data bit.

DSSS example

The spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000. If the original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is 11N. This means that the required bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the original signal.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA A transmission media is can carry the information from sender to the receiver. The transmission media is an physical path from source to destination. The transmission media is controlled by the physical layer in sender and receiver side. These signals are transmitted from one device to another device in the form of electromagnetic energy, which is propagated through transmission media.

Transmission medium and physical layer

Transmission media can be divided into two categories. 1. Guided (wired) 2. Unguided (wireless) Guided includes the fiber optic cable, twisted pair cable and coaxial cable. Unguided includes the wireless i.e., air.

Classes of transmission media

1. Guided (wired) In this type of media, a physical path is established between source and destination. The signal which is in the form of electromagnetic waves utilizes the path of transmission. The guided transmission media types are 1. Twisted pair cable 2. Coaxial copper cable 3. Fiber optic cable.

1. Twisted pair cable In twisted pair cable, 2 ordinary copper wires which acts as conductor are twisted around one another, so as to reduce the disturbance caused by the electromagnetic waves or due to cross talk between two adjacent circuits. Twisted pair cables are used both for analog and digital signal transmission. They are generally used in homes and business computers for connecting them to telephone exchange. Less expensive than the remaining cables. Twisted pairs are restricted with respect to distance, capacity of channel, data rate.

Amplifiers are needed for every 5 to 6 km intervals so that the signal us not weaken and for analog signal. For digital signals repeaters are used at every 2 to 3 km intervals.

Twisted pair cable is again divided into 2 types. 1. Unshielded twisted pair cable(UTP) 2. Shielded twisted pair cable (STP) Unshielded twisted pair cable (UTP) In UTP, there is no shielding around the twisted pair. UTP are generally used in telephone companies. It is very easier to work. The absence of the shield result in greater flexibility and durability. The main disadvantage is lack of shield electromagnetic interference may occur.

Shielded twisted pair cable (STP) In STP, there is a tough protective shield over ever pair of copper wire that is used to reduce the electromagnetic interference that occurs during transmission. It reduces the external interferences. It is expensive than the UTP.

CONNECTORS The most common UTP connectors is RJ45 RJ stands for Registered Jack. The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way.

Twisted pairs are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The local loop the line connects subscribers to the central telephone office is most commonly UTP. COAXIAL COPPER CABLE Coaxial cable is most preferred guided transmission media for transmitting signals. The construction of the coaxial cable is different from that of twisted pair.

Coaxial cable has two conductors 1. Inner conductor which is surrounded by dielectric system (insulator). 2. Outer conductor which surrounds the dielectric system.

Outer conductor is covered by the protective shield called jacket. Outer conductor protects the inner conductor from the electromagnetic interference that carry the electrical signals. The dielectric system detaches the inner conductor from the outer conductor.

Coaxial cable can be used both for long distances and short distances transmission. It is used in telephone companies They are used in business, installing Ethernet and other type of LAN. It have higher frequency and data rates when compared to twisted pair. It is less electromagnetic interference and less cross talk because of the presence of the insulator.

Coaxial cable connectors

To connect the coaxial cable we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of connector used today is the bayone neill concelman or BNC connectors. There are three types of connectors 1. BNC connector 2. BNC T connector 3. BNC terminator

1. The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device as a TV set. 2. The BNC T connector is used in the Ethernet networks to branch out a cable for connection to a computer. 3. The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.

FIBER OPTIC CABLE A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance. If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance, the ray direction changes. If the angle of incidence I is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to the surface. If the angle of incidence I is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the interface. If the angle of incidence I is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects and travels in the dense.

Critical angle is the property of the substance and it changes to substance to substance. Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. By using the cladding the light travel in the core.

Refraction

Critical Angle

Reflection

Bending of light ray

PROPAGATION MODES:Propagation modes are the character tics of the propagation of light along optical channels. Modes are classified into two modes 1. Multimode 2. Single mode Again multimode is divided into two types 1. Step index 2. Graded index

Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different paths. In multimode step index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber. A second type of fiber, called multimode graded index fiber, decreases this distortion of the signal through the cable. The word index refers to the index of refraction. Single mode uses step index fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than of the multimode fiber with lower density.

Multimode Step-Index

Multimode Graded-Index

Single Mode

Fiber Construction

Modes

Fiber construction

Fiber optic cable connectors There are three types of connectors for fiber optic cables. The subscriber channel SC connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking system. The straight tip ST connector is used for connecting cable to networking devices. MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.

Fiber-optic cable connectors

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER It has higher bandwidth rather than the twisted pair and coaxial cable. Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber optic cables. Glass is more resistant to mordant materials than copper. Fiber optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.

DISADVANTAGES The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than the cables. Fiber optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed.

UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of communication is known as wireless communication. Signals are broadcast into the free space and those signals are available to anyone who has the capable of receiving them. Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several ways: Ground propagation, sky propagation and line of sight propagation.

Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere. These low frequency signals originate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet. In sky propagation, higher frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere where they are reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.

In line of sight propagation, very high frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either tall enough or close enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth. The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and microwaves is divided into eight ranges called bands, each regulated by government regulations. These bands are rated from very low frequency to extremely high frequency.

Propagation methods

Propagation Types

Wireless transmission waves

RADIO WAVES There is an difference between the radio waves and microwaves. Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3Khz and 1Ghz are called radio waves. Waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300Ghz are called microwaves. Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.

Omnidirectional antenna

Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions. Radio waves are used for multicast communications , such as radio and television, and paging systems.

Radio Communication Band

MICROWAVES Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300Ghz are called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be associated. Use of the certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities. Very high frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.

UNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA Microwaves are unidirectional that can send out the signals in one direction. Two types of antenna are used 1. Parabolic dish 2. Horn antenna A parabolic dish antennas is based on the geometry of a parabola. Every line is parallel to the line of symmetry reflects off the curve at angles such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus.

A horn antenna looks like a extremely large hollow out. Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a stem and deflected outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by the curved head. Received transmissions are collected by the hollow out shape of the horn. Microwaves are used for unicast communications such as cellular telephones, satellite networks and wireless LANs. Unicasting property only one to one communication is needed between the sender and the receiver.

Parabolic Dish Antenna

Horn Antenna

Unidirectional antennas

INFRARED WAVES Infrared signals, with frequencies from 300Ghz to 400Thz, can be used for short range communication. Infrared signals can be used for short range communication in a closed area using line of sight propagation. Infrared signals useless for long range communication. We cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication. The infrared waves has an excellent potential for data transmission upto 400Thz.

Cellular System

Switching
A switched networks consists of a series of interlinked nodes called switches. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two or more devices linked to the switch. In switched network, some nodes are connected to the end systems. The end systems are labeled as A,B,C,D and so on are labeled I,II,III,IV and V. Each switch is connected to multiple links.

Switched network

There are three methods of switching. 1. Circuit switched networks 2. Packet switched networks 3. Message switched networks Packet switched networks are again divided into 2 categories. Datagram networks Virtual circuit networks

1. Circuit switched networks A network is said to be switched if connections among different machines on the network are made with the help of special type of devices called switches. Switches can also referred to as sequence of nodes and switches can be categorized into either hardware devices or software devices. A circuit switched network consists of a set of switches connected by the physical links. A connection between 2 stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links. Each connection uses only one dedicated channel on the link like FDM.

In circuit switch technique, a dedicated line is established to transfer the data among various devices. There are three phases 1. Setup a connection 2. Transfer of data 3. Terminate the connection Setup of connection
Before sending any signal or data from one point to another point a circuit must be established. When a telephone user dials a number, the various switching offices establish a connection among themselves.

The elapsed time between the end of dialing a number at one end and start ringing the bell at the other end is approx 10 seconds for local calls, during this time it will establish a copper path i.e., microwave link. After the connection as been established the data must be transferred. Transfer of data: Once the connection has been established the data transferred through that connection. The data can be either digital or analog form, depending on the nature of the network used.

Termination the connection: Once the data transmission is completed, then the connection is terminated. In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during the setup phase (setup connection; the resources remain dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown phase(termination).

Efficiency Circuit switched networks are not as efficient as the other two types of networks. Because these resources are allocated during the entire duration of the connection. These resources are unavailable to other connections. A computer can be connected to another computer even if there is no activity for a long time in computer networks.

DELAY IN CIRCUIT SWITCHED NETWORKS A circuit switched network has low efficiency, the delay in this type of network is minimal. During data transfer the data are not delayed at each switch, the resources are allocated for the duration of the connection. The total delay of the circuit is due to the time needed to create the connection, data transfer and the termination.

DATAGRAM NETWORKS In data gram network, each packet is treated independently of all others. In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet. This means that there is no reserved bandwidth on the links and there is no scheduled processing time for each packet. There is nor resource reservation, only resources are allocated on demand. Packets are treated as a datagram's. In this switching first data is divided into the packets and transmitted from source to the destination.

A datagram network with four switches (routers)

Routing table in a datagram network

When a source transmits the datagrams they are transmitted individually. Network assumes only one packet is transmitted, but each datagram will be transmitted through different routes. There will no fixed route for each datagram. ROUTING TABLE In datagram network, a packet switch has a routing table which is based on the destination address. These tables are dynamic and these are updated periodically. The routing table includes destination address and their forwarding output ports.

When the switch receives the packet it checks the destination address from the routing table and find the port through which the packet should be forwarded. A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table that is based on the destination address. The destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram network remains the same during the entire journey of the packet.

In a datagram network the efficiency is better than that of a circuit switched network. Resources are allocated only when there are packets to be transferred. If a source send a packet and there is a delay of few minutes before another packet can be sent, the resources can be reallocated during these minutes for packets from other sources.

DELAY IN DATAGRAM NETWORKS When compared to virtual circuit network, there is a greater delay in datagram network. In datagram network, there is no setup connection and termination. It is not necessarily all packets in a message can travel through the same switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of a message. The packet travels in two switches. There are three transmission times 3T. Three propagation delays and two waiting times. The total delay =3t+3T+w1+w2.

Delay in a datagram network

VIRTUAL CIRCUIT NETWORKS A virtual circuit network is a combination of circuit switching and datagram switching. A path is established between sender and receiver prior to transfer of packets. Connection oriented network is also known as virtual circuit. Virtual circuit is similar to telephone system. A route, which consists of a logical connection is first established between two users. The connection that is established is not a dedicated path between stations. The path is generally shared by many other virtual connections.

The process is completed in three main phases. 1. Establishment phase 2. Data transfer phase 3. Connection release phase
Establishment phase:In this phase, the two users not only agree to setup a connection between them but also decide upon the quality of service associated with the connection. After this sequence the information is packetized and transmitted in bidirectional between the nodes. The information is delivered to the receiver in the same order as transmitted by sender.

Data transfer phase:In this phase, it performs the flow control and error control services. The error control service ensures the correct sequencing packets and correct arrival of packets. Flow control service ensures a slow receiver from being awesome with the data from a faster transmitter. Connection release:In this phase, when the station wish to close down the virtual circuit, one station can terminate the connection with a clear request packet.

Advantages of packet switching 1. Uses resources more efficiently. 2. It is more flexible, packets can be routed through any switching node. 3. Improved bandwidth. 4. Small sized packet reduces transmission delay. 5. Very little to setup or termination is also easy.

Disadvantages of packet switching 1. Complex protocol for packet switching 2. Packets may lost during switching. 3. Switching processor must be powerful.

ADDRESSING In virtual circuit networks, two types of addressing are involved. Global and local(virtual circuit identifier) Global addressing In global addressing a source or destination needs to have a global address an address that can be unique in the scope of the network or internationally. With the help of global address in virtual circuit networks is used only to create a virtual circuit identifier. Virtual circuit identifier The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called virtual circuit identifier. A VCI is a small number that has only switch scope.

It is used by a frame between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI, when it leaves it has different VCI. Three phases Setup Data transfer Teardown In the setup, the source and destination use their global address to help switches make table entries for the connection. In the teardown phase, the source and destination inform the switches to delete the corresponding entry. Data transfer occurs between these two phases.

Data transfer phase: To transfer a frame from sender to the receiver all switches are need to have a table entry for this virtual circuit. It has four columns. The switch holds four pieces of information for each virtual circuit. A frame arrives at port 1 with a VCI of 14. When the frame arrives, the switch looks in its table to find port 1 and a VCI of 14. When it is found, the switch knows to change the VCI to 22 and send out the frame port 3. The data transfer phase is active until the source sends all its frame to the destination. The process creates a virtual circuit not a real circuit between source and destination.

Setup phase In this phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit. Source A needs to create virtual circuit to B. Two steps are required. The setup request The acknowledgement. Setup request A setup request frame is sent from the sender to the receiver. a. Source A sends a setup frame to switch 1. b. Switch 1 receives the request frame it knows that a frame going from A to B but it knows only the port number. The switch creates an entry in its table for this virtual circuit but it only able to fill three of the four columns. c. Switch 2, receives the setup request frame.

Virtual-circuit identifier

Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network

Figure 8.14 Setup request in a virtual-circuit network

8.146

Figure 8.15 Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit network

8.147