Evaluating Arguments

Argument

Deductive

Inductive

1. the nature of the link between premises and conclusion 2. the occurrence of special indicator words 3. the form of argumentation the arguer uses

the nature of the link between premises and conclusion

Deductive A deductive argument is one in which the conclusion is presumed to follow necessarily from the premises. Assuming that premises are true, it is absolutely impossible that the conclusion be false. Inductive An inductive argument is one in which the conclusion is presumed to follow only probably from the premises. Assuming that the premises are true, it is possible, but not probable, that the conclusion is false.

Majority of the Ateneo students are taking up nursing. Juan dela Cruz is studying in Ateneo Therefore, Juan must be a nursing student. All philosophy teachers are kind to their students. Jones is a philosophy teacher. Therefore, he is kind to his students.

the occurrence of special indicator words

Deductive Necessarily Certainly Absolutely Definitely Ambiguous Must Definitely Certainly Inductive Probable Improbable Plausible Implausible Likely Unlikely reasonable to conclude

Because triangle A is congruent with triangle B, and triangle A is isosceles, it necessarily follows that triangle B is isosceles.
The prime rib, beef stronganoff, and lobster thermidor at the Pioneer House are all excellent. The likely conclusion is that all the entries on the menu are excellent.

The sign on the candy machine reads "Out of Order. The candy machine must be broken.

The form of argumentation the arguer uses

Deductive argument from definition categorical syllogism hypothetical syllogism disjunctive syllogism Inductive Prediction argument from analogy inductive generalization argument from authority argument based on signs causal inference

argument from definition

is an argument in which the conclusion is claimed to depend merely upon the definition of some word or phrase used in the premise or conclusion Because Claudia is mendacious, it follows that she tells lies. Because a certain paragraph is prolix, it follows that it is excessively wordy.

categorical syllogism
a syllogism in which each statement begins with one of the words "all" "no," or "some." All Professors ate academicians. No academicians are headhunters. Therefore, no professors are headhunters.

hypothetical syllogism
a syllogism having a conditional statement for one or both of its premises If Tony is convicted of a felony, then he will go to jail. If he goes to jail, then his wife will divorce him. Therefore, if Tony is convicted of a felony, then his wife will divorce him.

If I am assassinated I am dead I am assassinated. Therefore, I am dead.

disjunctive syllogism
A syllogism having a disjunctive statement (i.e., an "either or" statement for one or both of its premises. Either Gloria is persecuted for cheating during the elections or the judiciary is unreliable. Gloria was not persecuted. Therefore, the judiciary is unreliable.

prediction
the premises deal with some known event in the present or past, and the conclusion moves beyond this event to some event in the relative future. the future cannot be known with certainty; thus the argument inductive. Because an ITCZ has been observed to develop over Eastern Mindanao, a storm will occur there in six hours. Because certain fluctuations occurred in the prime interest rate on Friday, the value of the dollar will decrease against foreign currencies on Monday.

argument from analogy

Is an argument that depends on the existence of a similarity, between two things or states of affairs. Because of the existence of this analogy, a certain condition that affects the better-known thing or situation is concluded to affect the similar, lesserknown thing or situation. Because the oil being pumped from a certain well in Texas has a high sulfur content, the oil being pumped from nearby wells also has a high sulfur content.

inductive generalization
is an argument that proceeds from the knowledge of a selected sample to some claim about the whole group. Because the members of the sample have a certain characteristic, it is argued that all the members of the group have that same characteristic. Because three oranges selected from a certain crate were especially tasty and juicy, all the oranges from that crate are especially tasty and juicy. Because six out of a total of nine Ateneo college students said that they have cars, therefore two-thirds of the entire college population own cars.

argument from authority

is an argument in which the conclusion rests upon a statement made by some presumed authority or witness. Because Jesseca Alfaro, the star witness of the Vesconde massacre said that she saw H. Web killed the victims, therefore Web is guilty. Because the supreme court ruled that Web is not guilty, therfore, he did not do the crime.

argument based on signs

is an argument that proceeds from the knowledge of a certain sign to a knowledge of the thing or situation that the sign symbolizes. She wears a wedding ring, she must be married. She is hot, she must be having a fever.

causal inference
Are arguments that proceed from knowledge of a cause to knowledge of the effect, or, conversely, from the knowledge of an effect to knowledge of a cause. Because the bottle of wine had been accidentally left in the freezer overnight, we can infer that it had frozen (cause to effect). The chicken I ate is dry and crunchy, it definitely had been overcooked (effect to cause).

Argument Deductive Inductive

Valid
Invalid

Validity vs Invalidity
A valid deductive argument is an argument in which it is impossible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true. In these arguments the conclusion follows with strict necessity from the premises. An invalid deductive argument is a deductive argument in which it is possible for the conclusion to be false given that the premises are true. In these arguments the conclusion does not follow with strict necessity from the premises, even though it is claimed to.

 All human beings are mortals Ben is mortal So Ben is human If it rained last night the streets will be wet. The streets are wet. So, it rained last night. Since Christmas comes before New Year and Halloween comes before New Year, it follows that Halloween comes before Christmas. Either the battery is dead or there is a short in the ignition switch. The battery is dead Therefore, there is a short in the ignition switch.

Argument Deductive Valid Sound Unsound Inductive

Invalid Unsound

Sound and Unsound Arguments

An argument is sound if, and only if, it meets the following conditions:
1. The argument is valid 2. All the premises of the argument are true

We can only determine the soundness of the argument after knowing the truth value of the premises as all true. All invalid arguments are unsound Arguments which has at least one false premise is already unsound.

Valid

Invalid
All wines are beverages. Tuba is a beverage. Thus, Tuba is a wine. (Unsound)
All wines are beverages. Coke is a beverage. Thus, Coke is a wine. (Unsound) All wines are whiskeys. Tanduay is a whiskey. Thus, Tanduay is a wine. (Unsound) All wines are whiskeys. Coke is a whiskey. Thus, Coke is a wine. (Unsound)

True premises True conclusion

True premises False conclusion False premises True conclusion False premises False conclusion

All wines are beverages. Tuba is a wine. Thus, Tuba is a beverage. (Sound) None exists

All wines are soft drinks. Coke is a wine. Thus, Coke is a soft drink. (Unsound) All wines are whiskeys. Coke is a wine. Thus, Coke is a whiskey. (Unsound)

Argument Deductive Inductive Weak Strong

Strong vs. Weak

a strong inductive argument is an inductive argument in which it is improbable that the conclusion be false given that the premises are true. the conclusion does in fact follow probably from the premises weak inductive argument is an argument in which the conclusion does not follow probably from the premises, even though it is claimed to. the conclusion does not follow probably from the premises

 All dinosaur bones discovered to this day have been at least 50 million years old. Therefore, probably the next dinosaur bone to be found will be at least 50 million years old. All meteorites found to this day have contained sugar. Therefore, probably the next meteorite to be found will contain sugar.

 When a lighted match is slowly dunked into water, the flame is snuffed out. But gasoline is a liquid, just like water. Therefore, when a lighted match is slowly dunked into gasoline, the flame will be snuffed out. During the past fifty years, inflation has consistently reduced the value of the American dollar. Therefore, industrial productivity will probably increase in the years ahead.

Cogency and Uncogency

A cogent argument is an inductive argument that is: strong Has all true premises if either condition is missing, the argument is uncogent. A cogent argument is the inductive analogue of a sound deductive argument and is what is meant by a "good" inductive argument without qualification.

Argument Deductive Inductive Weak Uncogent

Strong Cogent Uncogent

Strong True premise Probably true conclusion All previous AdZU presidents were Jesuits. Therefore, probably the next AdZU president will be a Jesuit. [cogent] None exist

Weak Several AdZU presidents were Filipino Jesuits. Therefore, probably the next AdZU president will be a Filipino Jesuit. [uncogent] A few AdZU presidents were American Jesuits. Therefore, probably the next president will be an American Jesuit. [uncogent] Only some of who became Adzu presidents were unmarried. Therefore, probably the next AdZU president will be unmarried. [uncogent] A few AdZU presidents were dentists. Therefore, probably the next AdZU president will be a dentist. [uncogent]

True premise Probably false conclusion

False premise Probably true conclusion

Most but not all AdZU presidents are Jesuits. Therefore, all AdZU presidents are Jesuits. [uncogent] All previous AdZU presidents became a pope. Therefore, probably the next AdZU president will become a pope. [uncogent]

False premise Probably false conclusion