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organizational problem or opportunity are called systems development This is a structured kind of problem solving with distinct activities moving from one step to the other The process of designing, building and maintaining information systems is known as systems analysis and design The term systems development life cycle (SDLC) is used to describe the life of an information system right from its conception till its retirement
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Contd.
Large complex problems are decomposed into smaller once to arrive at better solutions These smaller problems are solved through small computer programs The final system is built by combining these smaller computer program Systems development process starts when management realize that a particular business system needs
improvement
Approaches to IS Development
Traditional Systems Development Approach (SDLC)
Prototyping Rapid Application Development
Preliminary Investigation
A brief study of the problem to determine whether the project should be pursued Also called the feasibility study or system survey Defines the problem The nature of the problem The scope (boundaries) of the problem Also involves working with the users
Analysis
Understand the existing system Two tasks are involved Data gathering Data analysis This also involves feasibility study Technical : Assess hardware, software, technical resources Economic: Will benefits outweigh costs? Operational : Is solution desirable within existing conditions?
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Data Gathering
A number of techniques can be used Written documents Interviews with users and managers Structured interview includes only questions that have been written out in advance Unstructured interview interviewer has a general goal but few, if any questions prepared Questionnaires Observation Sampling
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Data Analysis
Typical tools for data analysis Data flow diagram Decision table/Tree Checklist Top-down analysis method Grid chart Structured English Automated design tools CASE Create system requirements Report to management
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A map that graphically shows the flow of data through a system Used to diagram existing procedures and data flows
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CUSTOMER
KITCHEN
1.0
Customer Order
Receipt
Food Order
3.0
Update Goods Sold file
2.0
Update Inventory file
Inventory Data
D1
4.0
Produce Management Reports
D2
Inventory File
Management Reports
RESTAURANT MANAGER
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Grid chart
System flowchart
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Contd.
Decision Tree
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Decision Tables
Show the table of logical decisions that must be made Useful in cases that involve a series of interrelated decisions Help to ensure no alternatives are overlooked
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Structured English
Common Statements Action Statement Example Profits = Revenues - Expenses Generate Inventory - Report Add Product record to Product Data Store IF Customer Not in Customer Data Store THEN Add Customer record to Customer Data Store ELSE Add Current-Sale to Customers Total-Sales Update Customer record in Customer Data Store FOR all Customers in Customer Data Store Generate a new line in the Customer-Report Add Customers Total-Sales to Report-Total CASE
If Statement
For Statement
Case Statement
If Income < 10,000: Marginal-tax-rate = 10% If Income < 20,000: Marginal-tax-rate = 20% If Income < 30,000: Marginal-tax-rate = 31% If Income < 40,000: Marginal-tax-rate = 35% ELSE Marginal-tax-rate = 38% ENDCASE
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Systems Design
The new system is actually planned Divided into two sub phases
Preliminary design Several key decisions must be made Build a prototype Detail design specifications Output requirements Input requirements Files and databases System processing System controls and backups
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Build or Buy?
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Systems Development
Schedule and monitor the two principal activities
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Programming
Specifications prepared in the design phase are then translated into the software program codes in this
stage Prepare program design specifications Use logic flowcharts and pseudocode to facilitate code development Following two approaches are followed for this: - Software programs are written within the organization itself - Application software packages are purchased for this
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Testing
This stage is very important to ensure that the system developed is capable of producing the right results under known circumstances This involves the following aspects:
Unit testing verifies that individual program units work Perform testing with test data System testing determines whether all program units work
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Implementation
Steps involved in starting the new system
Training Equipment conversion File conversion System conversion Auditing Evaluation Maintenance
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Contd.
Training:
Teach users how to use the system The system will do no better than the people using it Develop users manual to aid users who are not familiar
with the system Hands-on training is best Equipment Conversion Delivery schedules must be coordinated Terminals or personal computers must be networked Devices on the system must be compatible
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Contd.
File conversion:
If existing files are manual, they must be keyed in or scanned into the
system If existing files are computer-based, programs must be written to convert the files into the format needed for the new system System Conversion: Four approaches Direct conversion the user simply stops using the old system and starts using the new one Phased conversion the system is implemented one part at a time Pilot conversion the entire system is used by a designated set of users Parallel conversion the old and new systems are both used until users are satisfied the new system works
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Maintenance
Systems maintenance is very important and is an ongoing activity
Two parts:
Systems Audit
Systems to trace data in the system back to a source document Very helpful in tracing security violations Periodic evaluation Determines how well the system is meeting the original requirements, benefits, and budgets
Contd.
The system maintenance process is parallel to the process of initial development of the IS During this phase the largest part of the systems
development effort occurs Maintenance activity could be of one of the following types: - Corrective maintenance - Adaptive maintenance - Perfective maintenance - Preventive maintenance
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Prototyping : An Overview
Prototype refers to a working model of an information
system application But it does not contain all the features or perform all the necessary functions of the final system However, it includes sufficient elements to enable individuals to determine what they like or dont like and also to identify features to be added or changed It is a process of building experimental system quickly and inexpensively for demonstration and evaluation
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Characteristics of Prototypes
The prototype is a live, working application The purpose is to test the assumptions made by
Uses of Prototyping
Prototyping has the following two primary uses: Acts as an effective device for clarifying user requirements It is used for verifying the feasibility of a system design
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Use prototype
Review prototype
Repeat as needed
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Contd.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Helps users define requirements Encourages active user participation Errors and omissions tend to be detected earlier Builds enthusiasm and acceptance for system
Prototype may meet requirements but not be best design Systems specifications often not adequately spelled out
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Object
A component in the computer system that can respond to
messages.
with people and devices in the system and refining the definition of each type of object so it can be implemented with a specific language or environment
OO Programming
Writing statements in a programming language to define what
each type of object does, including the messages that objects send and receive.
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Objects reusable
SYSTEM: classes, objects, relationships
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Outsourcing
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Prewritten, pre-coded application software, commercially available for sale or lease Geared to common requirements Customization: modification of software to meet organizations needs Must weigh costs / benefits Request For Proposal (RFP): detailed questions sent to vendors
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End-user Development
End-users develop information system with little help
from technical specialists using 4th generation tools STRENGTHS Improved requirements determination, increased user involvement & satisfaction, reduced application backlog WEAKNESSES Relatively inefficient, slow transaction processing, may carry high cost, large files can degrade performance, nonprocedural approach may hamper logic & updating requirements
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Outsourcing
Contracting: Computer center operations Telecommunications networks Application development To external vendors
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Outsourcing
When to outsource???? If firm wont distinguish itself by developing application If predictability of uninterrupted service not important If existing system is limited, ineffective, inferior
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