Chapter 12 Operational Amplifiers

Objectives
Describe basic op-amp characteristics

Discuss op-amp modes and parameters

Explain negative feedback Analyze inverting, noninverting, voltage follower, and inverting amp configurations Describe the impedance characteristics of the three op-amp configurations Discuss op-amp compensation

Troubleshoot op-amps

Introduction To Operational Amplifiers

The operational amplifier or op-amp is a circuit of components integrated into one chip. We will study the opamp as a singular device. A typical op-amp is powered by two dc voltages and has an inverting(-) and a noninverting input (+) and an output. Note that for simplicity the power terminals are not shown but understood to exist.

Introduction To Operational Amplifiers

While an ideal op-amp has infinite gain and bandwidth, we know this is impossible. However, op-amps do have very high gain, very high input impedance, very low output impedance, and wide bandwidth.

Introduction To Operational Amplifiers

It is interesting that the op-amp is internally made up of circuits that we have discussed in previous chapters.

Figure 124

The basic differential amplifier.

Thomas L. Floyd

Electronic Devices, 7e

Copyright 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.

Figure 125

Basic operation of a differential amplifier showing the effect

on the currents when a small voltage is connected to one of the bases.

Introduction To Operational Amplifiers

In single ended input mode one input is grounded.

Introduction To Operational Amplifiers

With the differential input mode two out-ofphase signals are applied with the difference of the two amplified and produced at the output.

Introduction To Operational Amplifiers

With common mode input, two signals of same phase, frequency, and amplitude are applied to the inputs which results in no output. This is called common-mode rejection. This type of mode is used for removal of unwanted noise signals.

Introduction To Operational Amplifiers

The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the measure for how well it rejects an unwanted the signal. It is the ratio of open loop gain (Aol) to common-mode gain (Acm). The open loop gain is a data sheet value. CMRR = Aol /Acm

Introduction To Operational Amplifiers

Op-amps tend to produce a small dc voltage called output error voltage (VOUT(error)). The data sheet provides the value of dc differential voltage needed to force the output to exactly zero volts. This is called the input offset voltage (VOS). This can change with temperature and the input offset drift is a parameter given on the data sheet.

Introduction To Operational Amplifiers

There are other input parameters to be considered for op-amp operation. The input bias current is the dc current required to properly operate the first stage within the op-amp.

The input impedance is another. Also, the input offset currentwhich can become a problem if both dc input currents are not the same.

Output impedance and slew ratethe response time of the output with a given pulse inputare two other parameters.

Op-amp low frequency response is all the way down to dc. The high frequency response is limited by the internal capacitances within the op-amp stages.

Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is feeding part of the output back to the input to limit the overall gain. This is used to make the gain more realistic so that the op-amp is not driven into saturation. Remember that regardless of gain, there are limitations of the amount of voltage that an amplifier can produce.

Op-Amps With Negative Feedback

The closed-loop voltage gain (Acl) is the voltage gain of an op-amp with external feedback. The gain can be controlled by external component values. Closed loop gain for a noninverting amplifier can be determined by the formula below.

A cl(NI) = 1 + Rf/R1

Op-Amps With Negative Feedback

The voltage-follower amplifier configuration has all of the output signal fed back to the inverting input. The voltage gain is 1. This makes it useful as a buffer amp since it has a high input impedance and low output impedance.

Op-Amps With Negative Feedback

The inverting amplifier has the output fed back to the inverting input for gain control. The gain for the inverting op-amp can be determined by the formula below.

A cl(I) = Rf/R1

Effects Of Negative Feedback On Op-Amp Impedances

However high the input impedance of an op-amp circuit is, impedance still exists. For a noninverting amplifier it can be determined by the formulas below.

B(feedback attenuation) = Ri/Ri + Rf Zin(NI) = (1 + AolB)Zin

Effects Of Negative Feedback On Op-Amp Impedances

The output impedance is understood to be low for an op-amp. Its exact value can be determined by the formula below.

Z(out) = Zout/1 + AolB

Effects Of Negative Feedback On Op-Amp Impedances

The input impedance for an inverting amplifier is approximately equal to the input resistor (Ri). The output impedance is very low and in most cases any impedance load can be connected to it with no problem. The exact amount can be determined by the formulas below.

B(feedback attenuation) = Ri/Ri + Rf

Zout(I) = Zout / (1 + AolB)

Bias Current And Offset Voltage Compensation

Input bias current creates an output error voltage that must be compensated for in all of the op-amp configurations. For the voltage-follower this error voltage can be reduced with resistors of the same value in the feedback loop and input.

Bias Current And Offset Voltage Compensation

For the inverting and noninverting configurations this can be accomplished by a resistor in the noninverting part of the circuit that has the same value as the feedback resistor.

Bias Current And Offset Voltage Compensation

Input offset voltage is small but unavoidable because of internal characteristic differences. The offset null terminals and a potentiometer connected as shown can eliminate this.

Open-Loop Response
The open-loop gain of an op-amp is determined by the internal design and it very high. The high frequency cutoff frequency of an open-loop op-amp is about 10 Hz.

Open-Loop Response
The internal RC circuit of an op-amp limits the gain at frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The gain of an open-loop op-amp can be determined at any frequency by the formula below.

Aol = Aol(mid)/1 + f 2/fc2

Op-amp with internal RC circuit shown externally.

Open-Loop Response
Of course, as with any RC circuit, phase shift begins to occur at higher frequencies. Remember that we are viewing internal characteristics as external components.

Closed-Loop Response
Op-amps are normally used in a closed-loop configuration with negative feedback. While the gain is reduced the bandwidth is increased. The bandwidth (BW) of a closed-loop op-amp can be determined by the formula below. Remember B is the feedback attenuation.

BWcl = BWol(1 + BAol(mid))

Closed-Loop Response
The gainbandwidth product is always equal to the frequency at which the opamps open-loop gain is 0 dB (unity-gain bandwidth).

Troubleshooting

You can only troubleshoot an op-amp as a single device even though it can be quite complex internally. Lets look at some common failures of the op-amp and the effects of associated external component failure.

Troubleshooting
With an open feedback resistor (Rf) in a noninverting amplifier, the op-amps gain goes up to the open loop gain. The result would be severe clipping of the output signal.

Troubleshooting
With an open input resistor (Ri) the gain would drop to approximately 1. Other signal degradation would be indicative of internal op-amp failure.

Troubleshooting
An open feedback resistor in an inverting amplifier would have similar effects as a noninverting amplifier. An open input resistor would prevent the input signal from reaching the amp. Internal op-amp failures would be the main suspect with a voltage follower aside from external connection problems.

Summary
The basic op-amp has three terminals: inverting input (-), noninverting (+), and output. An op-amp has a very high open-loop gain, very high input impedance, very lower output impedance, and wide bandwidth.

Common-mode occurs when equal in-phase voltages are applied to both terminals, which results in no output.
Input offset voltage and current produce an error voltage at the output. These can be compensated for by external components. Gain can be controlled by a resistive feedback loop.

Summary
The three op-amp amplifier configurations are inverting, noninverting, and voltage follower. The bandwidth of an op-amp is equal to the upper critical frequency (fcu). The bandwidth increases as the gain is decreased. The internal RC circuits are responsible for high frequency roll-off. The gain-bandwidth product equals the frequency at which unity voltage gain occurs.