Measurement and Instrumentation

Lecture#1

Engr. M.Ubaidullah
1

Course Outline:
1. Basics Concepts

2. Essentials of Analog Instruments

3. Galvanometers, Ammeters & Voltmeters 4. Watt meters & Energy meters

5. Measurement of Resistance
6. Measurement of Inductance and Capacitance (AC

Bridges) 7. Misc. Electrical Instruments 8. Electronics Instruments 9. Transducers

2

Reference Books:
Berlin, Electronic Instruments &

Measurements Modern Electronic Instrumentation & Measurement Techniques A.D. Hell Frick and W.D Cooper. Electronic Instrumentation & Measurements David A Bell A course in Electronic and electrical measurements and Instrumentation by J.B. Gupta
3

Objective of the Course:

Grading Scheme:
Assignments

Quizzes
Presentations Midterm Final Term

3-4 3-4 1-2

10% 10% 5% 25% 50%

1.Basics Concepts
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Measurement Methods Type of Measurement Instruments Classification of Instrumentations. Terms related to measurement Errors in measurement Types of errors

Electronics:

Deals with motion of electrons

Measurement:

man uses his imaginative skills to identify a physical phenomena Developed & utilized a means to understand this.

By measurement of a quantity, we mean an act of comparison

Instrumentation:

Deals with Science and technology of measurement of large no. of variables Uses principles in physics , chemistry & Appld. Science (Engg), Electrical. Electronics, Mech,computer, commn. etc.

10

1.1 Measurement Methods

Direct Comparison method: Mostly used method Unknown quantities are measured with z comparison of known standards, e.g. length, mass etc This is not very accurate method, as human errors are involved. Indirect Comparison method: More accurate than Direct method More sensitive Quantity is converted in analog form Analog signal is processed and fed to the measuring instrument The device which converts the quantity into suitable form is called transducer.

11

1.1 Measurement Methods

12

1.1 Measurement Methods

Indirect Comparison method:
Amplification of the weak signal before giving it to the measurement.

13

1.2 Type of Measurement

Primary Measurements: Direct measurement with comparison of respective standard. Needs no conversion in the measuring data. E.g. length, time, mass etc Secondary Measurements: Needs one conversion. E.g. to measure pressure, 1st it will be converted into suitable form by a transducer then fed into the instrument.

14

1.2 Type of Measurement

Tertiary Measurements: Needs two conversions. E.g. temperature measurement by thermocouples, involves 1st temperature conversion into voltage and then 2nd conversion into some readable form through a meter.

15

1.2 Type of Measurement

Tertiary Measurements: Needs two conversions. E.g. temperature measurement by thermocouples, involves 1st temperature conversion into voltage and then 2nd conversion into some readable form through a meter.

16

1.3 Instruments

An instrumentation may be defined as a device which helps to determine value of an unknown quantity.

17

1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.

(A)

Mechanical instruments. Used to measure static and stable quantities. E.g. force, pressure etc They cant measure dynamic and variable quantities. E.g. are pressure gauge, speedometer, water meter
Tire pressure gauge
18

1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.

(A)

Electrical Instruments. Faster than mechanical instruments However, their measuring part is also mechanical like needle, springs etc They are more accurate and sensitive They can measure dynamic quantities like current (varying at the rate of 50Hz/sec) measuring by ammeter. E.g. are ammeters, voltmeters etc

19

1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.

(A)

Electronic Instruments. Modern than the previous 2 types. Uses semiconductor devices like diodes, transistors etc which have excellent time response and have no noise pollution. E.g. are CRO, Power supplies etc.

20

1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.

(B)

Instruments can also be classified as: Absolute instruments. Secondary Instruments. Analog instruments Digital Instruments

21

1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.

(B)

Absolute instruments. Which gives measurement quantity in terms of constant of the instrument. Used in the laboratory for calibration and standardization. E.g. Tangent galvanometer
Secondary Instruments. Gives the measurement of the quantity directly on the instrument. E.g. frequency meter, ohm meter, volt meter etc
22

1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.

(B)

Secondary Instruments. Analog instruments. Measure analog signals. E.g. temperature

Digital Instruments. Gives the digital measurement like DMM Also measure the analog signal.

23

1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.

Errors in analog instruments:

Parallax error While taking reading, eye and pointer should be in the same line, otherwise error occurs, called parallax error. This error cant be removed completely. Human error Reading wrongly or recorded wrongly. Parallax is also a type of human error.

24

1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.

Instrumentations can also be classified as:

Indicating Instruments
Indicating instruments indicate, generally the quantity to be measured by means of a pointer which moves on a scale. Examples are ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter etc.

Recording Instruments
These instruments record continuously the variation of any electrical quantity with respect to time. In principle, these are indicating instruments but so arranged that a permanent continuous record of the indication is made on a chart or dial. Integrating instruments
25

1.4 Classification of Instrumentations.

Integrating instruments.

These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of electricity, energy etc., during a particular period of time. That is, these instruments totalize events over a specified period of time. No indication of the rate or variation or the amount at a particular instant are available from them. Some widely used integrating instruments are: Ampere-hour meter: kilowatt-hour (kWh) meter, kilovolt-ampere-hour (kVARh) meter.
26

1.5 Terms related to measurement

Instrument.

Device to measure the value

The true or expected value of a quantity to be measured may be defined as the average of an infinite number of measured values when the average deviation due to the various contributing factors tends to zero. It also refers to a value of the quantity under consideration that would be obtained by a method (known as exemplar method) agreed upon by experts. In other words, it is the most probable value that calculations indicate and one should expect to measure. Note that the value of the unknown obtained by making use of primary standards and measuring instruments is considered to be its true value.
27

True Value.

1.5 Terms related to measurement

Error. it is the deviation of the measured (or indicated) value from the true (or expected) value of a quantity. In other words, error is the difference between the measured value and the true value of the unknown quantity. It is also called absolute error are maximum possible error. Then error of measurements is given by A = Am At ---------(1) where Am = measured value of the quantity At = true value of the quantity

28

1.5 Terms related to measurement

Accuracy.

Closeness of readings to the true value It is expresses as %age of true value.

Precision.

It is measure of the consistency of reproducibility (repeatability) of the measurement (i.e., the successive reading do not differ). For a given fixed value of an input variable, precision is a measure of the degree to which successive measurement differ from one another.

29

1.5 Terms related to measurement

Sensitivity.
It is defined by the change in the output or response of the instrument for a unit change of input or measured variable.

Efficiency. Ratio of the measured quantity at full scale to the input power taken by the instrument.
Resolution or Discrimination. Resolution is the smallest change in a measured variable (or measurand) to which the instrument will respond.
30

1.5 Terms related to measurement

Fidelity.

If the instrument produces the o/p exactly the replica of the input, process is said to 100% fidelity. E.g. if a sine wave is fed to a CRO, the output of CRO should be an exact sine wave without any distortion. Torque weight Ratio: (T/W) Ratio of the deflecting torque produced on the moving system and weight of the moving system. For accuracy this ratio should be less. Response speed and response time: Rapid response of the instrument to the applied input. Time taken by the instrument to respond to the changes in the i/p.

31

1.6 Errors in measurement

1. 2. 3.

Gross error Systematic error Random error

32

1.6 Errors in measurement

Gross error

The class of error mainly covers human mistake in reading instruments recording and calculating result. These can be avoided by two means : Great care should be taken with reading & recording the data. 2, 3 or more reading should be taker for the quantity under measurement. some gross error can be detected & some others cannot. complete elimination is not possible.

33

1.6 Errors in measurement

Systematic error

There are divided as

Instrument Environmental Observational

34

1.6 Errors in measurement

Systematic error

These are divided as Instrumental error: Due to inherent short comings in the instrument. Due to misuse of instrument. Due to loading effect of instrument. Cab be reduced by: Substitution method or calibration against standard may be used for the purpose. Correction factors should be applied after determining instrumental errors. Instrument may be recalibrated carefully.
35

1.6 Errors in measurement

Systematic error

There are divided as Environmental due to surroundings E.g. Noise from electrical machine. Magnetic field, temperature Observational may be due to misreading of instruments.

36

1.6 Errors in measurement

Random Error:

Errors due to unknown Causes. Magnitude and direction not known Expressed as average deviation of probable errors or standard deviation Can be reduced by:

Increasing the no. of readings and using statically method.

37

Statistical Analysis:
Arithmetic Mean

38

Statistical Analysis:
Deviation from Mean

d1=x1- A.M. d2=x2- A.M.

39

Statistical Analysis:
Average Deviation

D= |di| / n

40

Statistical Analysis:
Standard Deviation

= sqrt ( |d i| 2/ n) For finite observations = sqrt ( |d i| 2/ (n-1))

41

Statistical Analysis:
Variance v= 2

42

Statistical Analysis:
Probable error = +/- 0.6745 (obtained from Gaussian error curve)

43

Statistical Analysis:
Limiting error specified by manufactures

44

Summary:
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Measurement Methods Type of Measurement Instruments Classification of Instrumentations. Terms related to measurement Errors in measurement Types of errors Statistical Analysis
45

46