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TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Types: 1. Guided - signal is directed along a physical media. Examples: coaxial cable, twisted pair, fiber optic 2. Unguided - provide a means of transmitting electromagnetic signals but do not guide them. Examples: air, vacuum, water, light wave propagation

Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Composed of 2 insulated wires twisted with each other to reduce electromagnetic inference with other twisted wires. A thindiameter wire may range from 22 to 26 guage or 0.016 to 0.036. A number of pairs (up to 300 pairs) are usually bundled together on a protective sheath.

Common Uses

Telephone Private Branch Exchange (PBX) Local Area Network (LAN)

Twisted Pair Types: 1. Unshielded (UTP) - most common 2. Shielded (STP) - used in noisy environments where the shield protects against excessive electromagnetic interference. Stranded and Solid Twisted Pair Stranded - most common and is very flexible for bending around corners. Solid - has less attenuation and can span longer distances, but is less flexible than stranded wire and cannot be repeatedly bent.

Twisted Pair Categories


Category
1 2

Cable type
UTP UTP

Application

3 4 5 Level 6 Level 7

UTP, STP UTP, STP UTP, STP UTP, STP UTP, STP

Analog voice Digital voice 1 Mbps data 16 Mbps data 20 Mbps data 100 Mbps data 155 Mbps data 1000 Mbps data

Twisted Pair Properties exhibits more signal distortion per meter thus used in limited distance, bandwidth, and data rate twisting reduces low frequency interference and crosstalk.

STP

UTP

shield

Shielded and Unshielded Twisted Pairs The metal shield on the STP cable adds protection against external interference.

Coaxial Cable Pertains to several layers of materials surrounding a common axis, hence the term co-axis or coaxial. Contains an insulated solid or stranded copper wire surrounded by a solid or braided metallic shield, wrapped in a plastic cover. The outer jacket is usually made up of one of the following: plenum, teflon, or polyvinyl chloride.
main wire

insulation ground insulation

Common Uses

carry long distance telephone signals carry long distance television transmission distribute TV signals to homes (cable TV) render short-range connections like I/O devices on computers local area networking (LAN)

Transmission Properties central conductor carries current in one direction, the braided shield is used as the return path of that current, thus magnetic fields coming from the coax is self-cancelled that is why it is less susceptible to interference and crosstalk than TP.

Fiber Optics A thin glass wire designed for light transmission, capable of transmitting trillions of bits per second. An optical fiber is constructed of a transparent core made of pure silicon dioxide (SiO2), through which the light travels. This core is so transparent that you could see through a three-mile thick window made out of it. The core is surrounded by a cladding layer that reflects light, keeping it in the core. The cladding is surrounded by a plastic layer, a layer of kevlar fibers for strength and an outer sheath of plastic or Teflon.

Common Uses backbone of long-haul telephone transmission metropolitan trunks local area network Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) & Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) are applications of optical fiber.

Transmission Properties huge transmission capacity light pulses are not affected by random radiation in the environment as are electrical pulses. error rate in transmitting light pulses is significantly lower than electrical pulses. allow longer distances to be spanned without repeaters in between that regenerate fading signals. more secure, because taps in the line can be detected installation is streamlined due to the dramatically lower weight of the material compared to copper cables.

Two primary types of fiber 1. Multimode fiber light can enter the core at different angles, making it easier to

connect the light source. light rays bounce around within the core causing some distortion and providing less bandwidth common for short distances core diameter of from 50 to 100 microns.

2. Singlemode fiber used for high-speed transmission over long distances provides greater bandwidth than multimode smaller core makes it more difficult to couple the light source. core diameter of less than 10 microns.

core cladding

Multimode

Singlemode

Fiber Strands The fibers in this picture are being prepared for splicing in a wiring closet. These few strands can collectively transmit billions of bits per second.

Fiber Versus Copper Not only does optical fiber provide enormous transmission bandwidth, but it takes a lot less room. The single strand of fiber in the center is equivalent in capacity to any one of the copper bundles in the picture.

288 Fibers in One Cable With the assistance of Antec Corporation, Lucent developed this record high-fiber-count, singlemode cable with 288 fibers. In 1996, Time Warner Cable in New York purchased 50 miles of it for transporting highbandwidth video, voice and data to its Manhattan subscribers.

.9" diameter

High-densit polyethylene j acket Metal armor Rip cord Inner sheath Dielectric strength member W ater-blocking tape

Core tube

Each of the 12 ribbons has 24 fibers

Fiber Optics Glossary

The following terms are courtesy of Panduit Corporation, a leading manufacturer of wiring and network cabling products. For more information, visit www.panduit.com.

adapter

A mechanical device designed to align fiber-optic connectors. It contains the split sleeve (interconnect sleeve) that holds the two ferrules together.

adapter sleeve

A mechanical fixture within the adapter body that aligns and holds two terminated fiber connectors. Adapter sleeve material is typically phosphor bronze, ceramic or polymer.

absorption

The absorbing of light energy within an optical fiber due to natural impurities in the glass. Absorption and scattering are the main cause of attenuation (signal loss) in an optical fiber.

acceptance angle aramid yarn

The angle, measured in degrees, at which the core of the fiber will accept light, measured from the fiber core axis (center of core). A member in optical fiber cable that provides support, protection and tensile strength. Also referred to as KEVLAR, which is a brand of aramid yarn.

attenuation

The loss of signal strength (optical power) during transmission between two points. It expresses the total loss of an optical system, measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km) at specific wavelengths.

A cceptance A ngle Core

Cladding

A cceptance Cone

backbone cabling

The interbuilding and intrabuilding cable connections between entrance facilities, equipment rooms and the telecommunications closets. It consists of the transmission media, main and intermediate crossconnects and terminations at these locations.

bandwidth buffer

The information-carrying capacity of an optical fiber. It is measured in MHz-km and GHz-km, as distance plays an important role. The protective layer that surrounds the fiber cladding. Fabrication techniques include tight or loose tube buffering.

cable assembly

An optical fiber cable that has connectors installed on one or both ends. When connectors are installed to only one end, it is referred to as a pigtail. When connectors are installed on both ends, it is known as a patch cord.

chromatic dispersion cladding

The spreading of light pulses caused by the difference in refractive indices at different wavelengths. The material surrounding the core of an optical fiber. The cladding has a lower refractive index (faster speed) in order to keep the light in the core. The cladding and core make up an optical waveguide.

cleave

The process of scoring and breaking the optical fiber end in order to terminate a connector.

coating

A protective layer applied over the fiber cladding during the drawing process to protect it from the environment.

Black polyurethane outer jacket

Strength members

Buffer Jacket Silicone coating Cladding (silica) Core (silica) Optical fiber

connector

A mechanical device used on a fiber to provide a means for aligning, attaching and decouplng the fiber to a transmitter, receiver or other another fiber. Commonly used connections include 568SC (Duplex SC), ST, FDDI, FC, D4 and Biconic.

core

The central region of an optical fiber through which light is transmitted. It has a higher refractive index (slower speed) than the surrounding cladding.

coupler decibel

A device that feeds the light from two or more fibers into the core of a single fiber. A unit of measure used to express the relative strength of a signal.

dielectric

A material such as a glass fiber, which is not metallic and is not conductive.

dispersion

The cause of bandwidth limitations in a fiber. Dispersion causes the spreading or broadening of light pulses as they travel through a fiber. The three major types are modal dispersion, chromatic dispersion and waveguide dispersion.

duplex cord

A two-fiber cable used for bi-directional transmission.

EMI (electromagnetic interference)

The interference in signal transmission or reception resulting from radiation of electrical or magnetic fields. Optical fibers are not susceptible to EMI.

enclosure

A cabinet used to organize and enclose cable terminations and splices for use within main equipment rooms, entrance facilities, main or intermediate cross-connects and telecommunications closets.

epoxy

A thermosetting resin used to secure the fiber with the connector ferrule.

extrinsic loss

The loss that is induced in an optical transmission system by an external source. In a fiber-optic link, this can be caused by improper alignment of connectors or splices.

ferrule

A mechanically rigid fixture within a connector body that aligns and holds the fiber (core and cladding) within the connector. Ferrule materials are ceramic, plastic and stainless steel.

Fiber

Ferrule

fiber

fiber

A thin filament of glass optical waveguide consisting of a core (inner region) and a cladding (outer region) and a protective coating.

fiber optics

Information transmitted through optical fibers in the form of light.

fusion splice

The joining of two fiber ends by applying enough heat to fuse or melt the ends together to form a continuous single fiber.

graded index

A fiber designed to be slower in the center of the core and faster toward the outside. The refractive index of the outer area is lower than the center, which allows the light waves to travel faster, and the difference in refractive index bends them inward. This type of fiber reduces modal dispersion and provides high bandwidth capabilities. Contrast with "step index" in this list of terms.

index of refraction

Same as "refractive index."

insertion loss or injection loss


intrinsic loss

The loss of light that results when two fibers are joined at a connection point.

The loss due to inherent traits within the fiber; for example, absorption (light energy is absorbed in the glass) and splice loss (mismatched numerical aperture).

laser diode

An optoelectronic device that produces light with a narrow range of wavelengths. It is always used for singlemode fiber and certain highbandwidth multimode fiber such as used with Gigabit Ethernet.

LED (light emitting diode)

An optoelectronic device that produces light with a wide range of wavelengths. LEDs are typically used with lower-bandwidth multimode fiber.

loose tube

The protective tube surrounding one or more fibers. This is usually found in cables used for outdoor installations.

macrobending

The loss due to large scale bending (extrinsic loss). Bending causes imperfect guiding of light which will exceed the critical angle of reflection. Macrobending loss can be reversed once the bend is corrected.

mechanical splice

Joining two fiber ends together by a temporary or permanent mechanical method in order to maintain continuous signal transmission.

microbending
micron (m)

The loss of light due to small distrotions in the fiber, not usually visible to the naked eye. One micro-meter or one millionth of a meter. Used to express the geometric dimension of fibers.

modal dispersion

The spreading of light pulses along the length of the fiber caused by differential optical path lengths in a multimode fiber.

mode

The light path through the fiber.

multimode

An optical fiber in which light travels in multiple modes. It typically has a 62.5 m core within a 125 m cladding.

250 m
62.5m 125 m

Coating Cladding

multiplex

Combining two or more signals into a single bit stream that can be individually recovered.

nanometer

A unit of measurement equal to one billionth of a meter.

numerical aperture (NA)

A number that expresses the light gathering capability of a fiber. It is the ratio of the refractive index of the core to the cladding.

OFNR (Optical Fiber Non-conductive Riser)


A type of optical fiber.

OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer)

An instrument that measures optical transmission characteristics by sending a short pulse of light down a fiber and observing backscattered light. Used to measure fiber attenuation and evaluate optical transmission at splices and connectors.

OFNP (Optical Fiber Non-conductive Plenum)


A type of optical fiber.

optical waveguide

A system that can carry light. An optical fiber.

photodiode

A device that receives optical power and changes it to electrical power.

PC (Physical Contacting) patch cord pigtail

Refers to the type of fiber-optic connector that makes actual contact of two terminated fiber ends, keeping signal losses to a minimum. A specific length of optical fiber cable with terminated connectors on each end. Used for connecting patch panels or optoelectronic devices.

A specific length of fiber-optic cable with a terminated connector on one end. The bare end will usually be spliced to feeder cable.

polishing paper

Also known as lapping film, it is a paper with a fine grit used to remove any imperfections in the fiber end surface that may exist after cleaving. Fiber ends terminated within a connector are polished flush with the end of the ferrule.

polishing puck receiver (RX) reflection

A device used to hold the connector during the polishing of the fiber.
An optoelectronic device that converts optical signals into electrical signals. The process that occurs when a light ray traveling in one material hits a different material and reflects back into the original material without loss of light.

Cladding (low refractive index)

Fiber jacket light

Silica Glass Core (high refractive index)

refraction

The bending of light rays as they pass through a transmission medium of one refractive index into a medium with a different refractive index.

refractive index

The ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in a specific material. Using 1.0 as the base reference, the higher the number, the slower the speed of the lightwaves.

riser

A pathway for indoor cables that pass between floors.

scattering

A property of glass that causes light to deflect from the fiber and contribute to losses (intrinsic attenuation).

singlemode

An optical fiber in which the signal travels in one mode (path). It typically has an 8-10 m core within a 125 m cladding.

250 m 125 m 8-10 m

Coating Cladding

splice

A method for joining two optical fiber ends. Fusion splicing and mechanical splicing are the two types.

splice closure

A container used to hold and protect splice trays.

splice tray

A container used to hold, organize and protect spliced fibers.

split sleeve

The part of a fiber-optic adapter that aligns the ferrules of two terminated connectors.

splitter

A device that takes the light from one fiber and injects it into the cores of several other fibers.

step index

A fiber in which the core has a single uniform refractive index. Contrast with "graded index" in this list of terms.

tight buffer

A protective coating (typically 900 m) that is extruded directly over the primary coating of fibers. Provides high tensile strength, durability, ease of handling and termination.

transmitter (TX) transceiver

An optoelectronic device that converts an electrical signal to an optical signal. It is usually an LED or laser diode.
A transmitter and receiver combined in one device.

wavelength

The length of a wave measured from any point on one wave to the corresponding point on the next, such as from crest to crest. Wavelength determines the nature of the various forms of radiant entry that comprise the electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelengths of light used in optical fiber communications are measured in nanometers. Common wavelengths are 850, 1300 and 1350 nm.

COMPARISON OF LAN TRANSMISSION MEDIA


Twisted Pair Transmission- 10Mbps over rate Flexibility 100 meter flexible Coaxial Fiber Optic 10Mbps over 100Mbps over 500 meter stiff 2km. flexible

Ease of Insta- very easy


llation Cost Reliabilty Inexpensive Good

relatively easy difficult

Moderate Good

Expensive Excellent

Factors to consider in selecting transmission media


reliability
ease of installation and maintenance flexibility (ability to be reconfigured) cost conditions of use

maximum transmission rate


security of data resistance to interference

WIRELESS TRANSMISSION

Electromagnetic Waves (EM) the energy that exists in all things produced by oscillating electrons composed of sinusoidal electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other the number of oscillations per second of the wave, or its frequency is expressed in Hertz (Hz) while the distance between two consecutive wave peaks, or the wavelength , is in meters.

travels at a constant speed in vacuum, no matter what its frequency is. Its speed c (a.k.a. speed of light) is 3 x 108 m/s. This speed is related to the frequency and wavelength by c = f no other wave or object can be faster than the EM wave - it is the limit.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

A broad range of EM waves with varying frequencies.


Parts of the radio spectrum are still unasigned, but will eventually be used for some commercial communications purpose. Radio, microwave, visible and infrared portions are used to transmit signals. Ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma rays are not used because they are difficult to modulate, are dangerous to human beings, and are not satisfactorily propagated through walls.

Type Gamma rays X- rays Ultraviolet VISIBLE LIGHT Near-infrared Infrared Microwaves Radio waves (amateur radio, aeronautical, cellular phone, taxis, aircraft, TV, FM, AM )

Frequency range (Hz) 10 - 10 10 - 10


15 17 20 24

Wavelength range <10


-12

higher frequencies smaller wavelengths

20

1 nm - 1 pm 400 nm - 1 nm
14

10 - 10

17

4 - 7.5 x 10
14

750 nm - 400 nm
14

1 x 10 - 4 x 10 10 - 10
11 13 14

2.5 m - 750 n m 25 m - 2.5 m

3 x 10 - 10
< 3 x 10
11

13

1 mm - 25m > 1 mm
larger wavelengths lower frequencies

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Radio and Microwave Bands


Frequency range 30 300 kHz 3 30 MHz 30 300 MHz 300 MHz 3GHz 3 30 GHz 30 300 GHz Name Low Frequency High Frequency Very High Frequency Ultra High Frequency Super High Frequency Extremely High Frequency Popular applications navigation shortwave radio (SW) VHF TV and FM radio UHF TV, terr. microwave terr. And sat. microwave

300 kHz 3 MHz Medium Frequency commercial AM radio

Radio The transmission of electromagnetic energy (radiation) over the air or through a hollow tube called a waveguide. Although radio is often thought of as only AM or FM, all airborne transmission is radio, including satellite and line-of-sight microwave. Radio transmitters are omnidirectional, meaning the signal is transmitted in all directions from the source. They easily penetrate walls and can reach long distances. Common Uses AM FM VHF UHF SW radio Packet radio

Transmission Properties has longer wavelengths which keeps it free from so much attenuation. subject to interference from motors and electrical equipment. at low frequency it passes through obstacles but the power decreases with distance from the source. at high frequency radio waves have the tendency to travel in straight lines and bounce at obstacles. quickly absorbed by rain. in data communications, the biggest disadvantage of using radio is the low data rate it can offer because radio waves have low frequency.

Microwave (Terrestrial) An electromagnetic wave that vibrates at 1GHz and above. Microwaves are the transmission frequencies used in communications satellites as well as in line-of-sight systems on earth. Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz can travel in straight lines. Parabolic dish antennas can be used to focus narrow microwave beams and aimed to the other antenna along a (straight) line-of-sight. Microwave covers a part of the UHF and the whole SHF band. Common Uses voice and television transmission used for long-haul telephone transmission before the introduction of fiber optics. cordless phones, wireless hifi speakers, microwave ovens. applied to short links between buildings.

Transmission Properties antenna height determines the maximum distance between two antennas without any obstacle in between. The higher the antenna, the longer the maximum distance between two antennas. amplifiers are inserted between points to be linked when distance is beyond maximum. Signal attenuation depends on the distance between the antenna, the wavelength, and rainfall.

Early Microwave Tower This microwave radio relay station was installed in 1968 at Boulder Junction, Colorado. (Photo courtesy of AT&T.)

Satellite Transmission (Microwave) A radio relay station in orbit above the earth that receives, amplifies and redirects analog and digital signals contained within a carrier frequency.

Three kinds 1. Geostationary (GEO) satellites are in ordbit 22,282 miles above the earth and rotate with the earth, thus appearing stationary. The downlink from GEOs back to earth can be localized into small areas or cover as much as a third of the earth's surface. 2. Low-earth orbit (LEO) satellites reside no more than 1,000 miles above the earth and revolve around the globe every couple of hours. They are only in view for a few minutes, and multiple LEOs are required to maintain continuous coverage. 3. Medium-earth orbit (MEO) satellites are in the middle, taking about six hours to orbit the earth and in view for a couple of hours. See Teledesic, Iridium, DSS, DirecPC and bent pipe architecture.

Communications Satellite There are hundreds of commercial communications satellites in orbit providing services for both industry and consumers. By the 21st Century, it is expected that Internet access via satellite will be popular.

Broadcast Satellite

Point-to-point Satellite

Common Uses television broadcast distribution long distance telephone transmission, extremely useful for those airborne or at sea. private business network Transmission Properties most common frequency used for satellite communications is the 6/4 GHz 14/12 GHz bands (uplink/downlink).

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