CONCEPTS OF

FORCE-STRESS and DEFORMATION- STRAIN

P2 P1

For a body in equilibrium (not in motion) subjected to some external forces Pi, there are internal forces developed within the body.
P4

P1, P2...:External forces F : Internal forces

P3

Internal forces can be shown on an imaginary cut section.

P4 P3

P2 P1

P3

P4

P3

P4

Since the body was initially in equilibrium, half of this body should also be in equilibrium. The internal forces are derived from the equilibrium equations and can be defined as the forces to bring the body to equilibrium. Remember force is a vectorical quantity which has a magnitude and direction.

P1+P2+P3+P4 = 0
For the original body

M = 0 P1+P2+F = 0
For half of the body

M = 0

F can be solved from the above set of

equilibrium equations of the half plane.

STRESS

If you look at that cut section little bit closer; Force acting on an infinite small area can be shown; F

s
That force is called the STRESS.

In other words stress is the force intensity (force per

unit area) acting on a material. Stress = Force Area or

F A

Normal () : acts perpendicular to the area Stress Shear () : acts parallel to the area. For example; if the cut section is perpendicular to xaxis y
Fy F x z Fx

Fz
Fx Fy A

x =

y =

z =

Fz A

 However, stresses are always represented in

tensorial (!not vectorical!) notation. The plane it is acting on is also presented. Therefore, if you take an infinitesmall volume element you can show all of the stress components
The

first subscript indicates the plane perpendicular to the axis and the second subscript indicates the direction of the stress component.
Stress Tensor

 In tensorial notation the stress components

are assembled in a matrix.

For equilibrium it

can be shown that :

S=

ij = ji for i j xy = yx xz = zx yz = zy

This symmetry reduces the shear stress components

to three.

Stresses can be grouped in several ways.

Static: A constant and continuous load causes a static stress.

Stress

Dynamic: Loads having different magnitudes and at different times cause dynamic stresses. Uniaxial tension or compression Biaxial tension or compression Triaxial compression Pure shear

Stress

W Spring is in uniaxial tension W

Column is in uniaxial compression

Baloon

Membrane forces (biaxial tension)

Hydrostatic pressure

(triaxial compression)

Common States of Stress

Simple tension: cable

F
F s= s Ao M

A o = cross sectional area (when unloaded)

s
Ski lift
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft

Ac M

Fs

Ao Fs t = Ao

2R

Note: t = M/AcR here.

Common States of Stress

Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Balanced Rock, Arches National Park

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F s= Ao

Note: compressive structure member (s < 0 here).

Common States of Stress

Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Fish under water

sq > 0 sz > 0

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

sh< 0

DEFORMATION

 Deformation: is the change in the shape or

a) b)

c)
1 A

dimension of a material. In other words when the relative position of points within a body changes deformation takes place. Elongation: occurs under tensile stresses. Shortening: under compressive stresses Rotation: due to shear stresses
A

Total elongation of the rod is 2 (cm, mm, length) Elongation between AB is (2-1)

B B

STRAIN

 Strain: represents the deformation of materials

per unit length and is unitless (cm/cm, mm/mm)

= l

Deformation Strain = Original length

d P

l0

l-l0 = l0

d0 l0 l

l=

l l0
d d0

(+) Tensile (elongation)

d =

(-) Shortening

 When pure shear acts on an element, the

element deforms into a rhombic shape. For convenience the element is rotated by an angle /2 and represented as shown.
y
/2 y A A B B C AA AD x (radians)

/2 x

For small angles = tan =

 A pure shear strain is produced in torsion.

B
L

AA = AB
A
r

AA = r

r = L

A A

: Angle of twist of radial line AB to position AB r: radius of cross-sectional area

Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, s: Shear stress, t:

Ft
Area, A
Area, A

Ft

F
Fs

Ft Ft Nf = 2 s= Ao m
original area before loading

Fs Fs t= Ao

Ft

Stress has units: N/m2 or kgf/cm2 or psi

Engineering Strain
Tensile strain: Lateral strain:

e = d Lo
Shear strain:
dL /2

d/2

wo

Lo

-d L eL = wo

q
x y
90 90 - q

g = x/y = tan q
Strain is always dimensionless.

Adapted from Fig. 6.1 (a) and (c), Callister 7e.

Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test machine Typical tensile specimen

extensometer

specimen

Adapted from Fig. 6.2, Callister 7e.

gauge length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)

Typical response of a metal

Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.

engineering stress

TS

Adapted from Fig. 6.11, Callister 7e.

sy

F = fracture or ultimate strength Necking

engineering strain