MONOHYBRID

INHERITANCE DIHYBRID INHERITANCE

 CHARACTERISTIC
GENE

VS TRAIT

VS ALLELE DOMINANT VS RECESSIVE F1 GENERATION GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE

 The

ABO blood group system is controlled by multiple alleles.

involves three alleles, IA, IB and IO in which only two alleles can be represented on the same locus of a pair of homologous chromosomes.
It

PHENOTYPE (BLOOD GROUP) A B AB O

GENOTYPE IAIA OR IAIO IBIB or IBIO IAIB IOIO

 The

inheritance of ABO blood group follows Mendels laws. Example: A father with blood group AB and a mother with blood group A heterozygous.

 The

rhesus factor is an antigen found on the surface of red blood cells. An individual with antigen D or the Rh allele is known as Rh-positive (Rh+) while an individual who does not have the rhesus factor is considered Rh-negative (Rh-). The allele for rhesus-positive is dominant to the allele for rhesus-negative.

 If

the mother is rhesus-negative while the child is rhesus positive, some foetal blood may enter the mothers blood during pregnancy. The mother blood will produce anti-rhesus antibodies which may harm subsequent rhesus-positive foetuses in successive pregnancies.

 Each

human somatic cell has 22 pairs of autosomes & one pair of sex chromosomes. The autosomes exists as 22 homologous pairs in both males & females and control all characteristics except for sex determination.

 Sex

chromosomes determine the sex of an individual. Female have two identical sex chromosomes called X chromosomes called x chromosomes. Male have one X chromosome and one smaller y chromosome.

The

karyotype can show the chromosome of individual with genetic disease or disorder.

 Down

syndrome is an example of a genetic disorder in which the patient has trisomy 21 (having three chromosomes 21 instead of two). A person with Downs syndrome has slanted eyes, protuding tongue, broad face, short palms & may be mentally retarded.

 The

somatic cell of a human male has 44 + XY chromosomes. The sperm may contain 22 + X chromosomes or 22 + Y chromosomes. A female somatic cell has 44 + XX chromosomes. Her ovum contains 22 + X chromosomes. Sex chromosomes are transmitted in a normal mendelian manner.

 There

is an equal probability of having a baby boy or baby girl. As the sperm may be carrying the X chromosome or Y chromosome, hence the sex of a child is determine by the father.

 Is

the inheritance genes carried in the chromosomes, usually the X chromosomes. These sex-linked genes determine other traits Example: Haemophilia Colour blindness Duchenne Muscular dystrophy.

 Is

a hereditary disease in which the blood of the affected person fails to clot quickly due to deficiency of the blood-clotting factor. This result in excessive loss of blood & a haemophiliac may bleed to death from minor injury. Haemophia is caused by a recessive allele found on the X chromosome.

 In

males, they are either normal or inflicted with the disease as the allele is found in the X chromosome & the Y chromosome does not carry the allele. Thus, a normal male is XHY and a haemophiliac is XhY. In females, the presence of haemophilia allele on the two X chromosomes produces the disease. A haemophiliac female is XhXh.

normal female can be homozygous dominant, XHXH or heterozygous dominant. a female who has XHXh is known as a carrier of the disease. Sex linked disease affect more males because males need one recessive allele only to inherit the disease while female need both recessive allele.

 The

most common colour blindness is the red-green colon colour blindness in which a person who is colour-blind cannot differentiate between red & green. Colour-blindness is caused by recessive allele linked to the X chromosome. The allele for normal vision is dominant.

 Other

hereditary disease include thalassaemia, albinism & sickle cell anaemia. They are not sex-linked. They are due to defective alleles found on the autosomes

gene is the basic unit of inheritance and has a specific location or locus on a chromosome. A chromosome is a thread-like structure found in the nucleus. Each chromosome is made up of a long DNA molecule coiled around protein molecules called histones. A DNA molecule contains thousands of genetic codes while the protein molecules do not carry any genetic information.

 The

DNA molecule consists of two polynucleotide chains twisted about each other to form a double helix structure. Each polynucleotide chain is made up of many nucleotides through condensation. Each nucleotide is made up of a deoxyribose sugar, a nitrogenous base & a phosphate group.

 There

are four different bases, thymine (T), adenine (A), cytosine (C) and guanine (G). Adenine is linked to thymine while cytosine to guanine by hydrogen bonds.

 The

sequence of the of the basses forms genetic codes. The genetic codes determine the characteristics of an organism through the synthesis of proteins.

 Selective

breeding Genetic engineering DNA fingerprinting Human genome project

 Desirable

characteristics in plants & animals can be produced through selective breeding.

 Also

known as recombinant DNA technology. Is the modification of the characteristics of an organism by manipulating its DNA. Application of genetic engineering: a) Genetically modified organism (GMO) b) Genetically modified Food (GMF) c) Gene therapy d) Production of medicine or drug

GMO Genetic codes of an organism can be altered, added or taken out to produce new desirable characteristics. Example: the transfer of a gene from a firefly to a tobacco plant enables the plan to glow in the dark
a)

GMF Genetic codes from bacteria can be transferred to crops such as maize plants from pests. GMF gives higher yield, pest resistance, enhance quality, last longer & increases nutritional values.
b)

Gene therapy Is the insertion of genes into an individuals cells to treat hereditary disease such as sickle-cell anaemia. d) Production of medicine or drugs A genetically modified form of insulin can be produced by inserting insulin gene into the E. coli bacteria.
c)

 Is

a technique used to analyse a persons DNA fragments. Certain nucleotide segments of the DNA do not code for proteins & exist as repeated short short sequences of bases. DNA of a person is obtained from sample of semen, hair or blood and is cut into fragments using specific enzymes. The DNA fragments are separated & arranged to form specific band pattern.

 Each

person has his own set DNA except for identical twins, Uses of DNA fingerprinting: To identify criminals To settle paternity disputes To detect genetic diseases To test compatibility of potential organ donor with recipient To confirm genotypes of animals & plants.

genome is an organisms complete set of genes. The project aims to map the position of the genes, to read & decode every code in the 46 human chromosomes. Advantages of the human genome project: To understand the mechanism of a genetic and to find ways to prevent the disease. To obtain information for diagnosis, treatment and possible prevention of disorders or diseases seuch as cancer diabetes and hearth diseases.