Presented by Dr. Nishant K.

Sinha
Scientist

Indian Institute of Soil Science

No Water - No Photosynthesis

People are "food secure" when they have regular access (either through production or purchasing power) to sufficient

food for a healthy and productive life.

Security and stability in food supplies is closely linked to success in water management. Moisture control in the root zone maximizes and stabilizes crop production by ensuring that fluctuations in the soil moisture do not result in stress to the crop, thus fully realizing the benefits of high-yielding varieties, fertilization, and pest control.

Irrigated area Vs Food security

Food security and water development in developing countries 100%
Irrigation in percentage of cultivated land

90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Sub-Saharan Africa Asia Eastern Europe Central Asia (FSU) Central America Near East-North Africa South America

70%

80%

Percentage of undernourished people

www.fao.org

 In the next 35-45 years, world food production will need to double to meet the demands of increased

population. 90% of this increased food production will have to come from existing lands. 70% of this increased food production will have to come from irrigated land.

Irrigation is the controlled application of water to

croplands. Its primary goal is to create an optimal soil

moisture regime for maximizing crop production, and at the same time minimizing the environmental

degradation.

Key elements of irrigation water management

Irrigation has two primary objectives: (1) to supply the essential moisture for plant growth; and (2) to leach or dilute salts from

the soil.

Irrigation water management deals with the frequency of

irrigation, depth of water to be applied, and measures to

increase the uniformity of applications.

Irrigation management should be a set of practices designed to

maximize efficiencies and minimize the labor and capital requirements of a particular irrigation system.

World Resources Institute (2000)

Consumption pattern of water in India

India ranks among the lowest countries in the world on

productivity of most major crops.

Crop Productivity Gap (kg/ha)

Crop
Maize

USA
8900

China
4900

India
2100

Paddy
Soy beans Seed Cotton Tomato

7500
2250 2060 6250

6000
1740 3500 2400

3000
1050 750 1430

Low farm productivity results in

High unit cost of production
High priced food Low farm incomes & purchasing power Low labour absorption High water consumption/unit of produce

Factors Determining Crop Productivity

Soil preparation Quality of seed Planting methods & tools Plant nutrition type, quality & timing Water management Pest management

Time & schedule management

Water application and use-efficiencies is quite low due to irrational use and

poor utilization of water at the farmers field. Most of irrigation projects in

country operate at a low efficiency in the range 3040%, thereby losing 6070% of irrigation water during conveyance and application
Conveyance losses from unlined, partially-lined and lined irrigation system as % of water released from a reservoir System characteristics Main canal (%) Distributaries Field water (%) courses (%) Total conveyance losses (%) Conveyance efficiency (%)

Entire system unlined Only canal lined Canal and distributaries lined Whole system lined

15 4 4 4

7 7 2 2

22 25 26 6

44 36 32 12

56 64 68 88

Source: Aggarwal and Khanna (1983)

Positive effects of increased efficiency of irrigation water

A larger area can be irrigated with the same volume of water. The competition between water users can be reduced. The effect of a water shortage will be less severe. Water can be kept in storage for the current (or another) season; Groundwater levels will be maintained.

Negative effects of increased efficiency of irrigation water

Soil salinity can increase because of reduced leaching; Groundwater levels will fall and aquifers will receive less recharge; Water retention in upstream river basin areas will be reduced; There will be a need for more accurate operation and monitoring and A need for a more expensive infrastructure.

Selecting an irrigation method for optimal water management

Compatibility. The irrigation system for a field or a farm must be compatible with the other existing farm operations, such as land preparation, cultivation, pest control, and harvest. Economic considerations.

The type of irrigation system selected is also an

economic decision. Important costs include: energy,

water, land, preparation, maintenance and labour.

Soil characteristics.

The soil type usually

defines: Soil moisture-holding capacity, intake rate and effective soil depth. Water supply. The quality, quantity, and temporal distribution characteristics of the source of irrigation water have a significant bearing on the irrigation practice. Crop factors. The economic value of the crop

Opportunities to improve water Productivity in irrigated farming systems Structural measures Non-structural measures
Structural measures/Irrigation application system :
Irrigation application systems may be grouped under two broad system types: gravity flow and pressurized systems.

Gravity Irrigation Systems and Practices

Rely on gravity to distribute water across the field Water losses are comparatively high under traditional gravity-flow systems due to percolation losses below the crop-root zone and water runoff at the end of the field. Efficiencies typically range from 40 to 65 percent

Improved systems with proper management may achieve efficiencies of up to 85 percent

Various gravity irrigation systems are

Open-ditch conveyance systems
Furrow systems Border (or flood) application systems

Uncontrolled flooding

Improved System and Practices

Pipeline conveyance systems
Underground pipeline constructed of steel, plastic, or

concrete is permanently installed; above-ground

pipeline generally consists of lightweight, portable

aluminum, plastic, or flexible rubber-based hose.

Field leveling
Control water advance and improve uniformity of soil
saturation under gravity-flow systems.

Level basin systems

Differ from traditional border application systems in that field slope is level and field ends are closed. Water is applied at high volumes to achieve an even, rapid ponding of the desired application depth within basins.

Shortened water runs

Reduce the length of furrow (or basin) to increase uniformity of applied water across the field. Reduced water runs are most effective on coarse soils with high soil-water infiltration rates.

Surge flow
Adaptation of gated-pipe systems in which water is delivered to
the furrow in timed releases and allowed to infiltrate.

Alternate furrow irrigation

involves wetting every second furrow only. This technique limits deep percolation losses by encouraging lateral moisture movement.

Cablegation
Gated-pipe system in which a moveable plug passes slowly through a long section of gated pipe, with the rate of movement controlled by a cable and brake.

Near the plug, the water level rises above the outlets to supply the field

Pressurized Irrigation Systems and Practices

Center-pivot sprinklers
is a self-propelled system in which a single pipeline supported by a row of mobile A frame towers is suspended 6 to 12 feet above the field. Center pivots have proven to be very flexible and can accommodate a variety of crops, soils, and topography with minimal modification.

Hand move
Portable sprinkler system in which lightweight pipeline sections are moved manually for successive irrigation sets of 40 to 60 feet. often used for small, irregular fields

Solid set
Stationary sprinkler system. Water-supply pipelines are generally fixed-usually below the soil surface-with sprinkler nozzles elevated above the surface.

Big gun
Use a large sprinkler mounted on a wheeled cart or trailer, fed by a flexible hose. The sprinkler is usually self-propelled while applying water. The system may require successive moves to irrigate the field.

Improved Systems and Practices

Improved center pivots
Reduce both water application losses and energy requirements and operate at lower pressures (15-45 psi).

Linear or lateral-move systems

Similar to center-pivot systems, except that the lateral line and towers move in a continuous straight path across a rectangular field. Water may be supplied by a flexible hose or pressurized from a concrete-lined ditch along the field edge.

LEPA (Low-energy precision application)

Applying water close to the ground cuts water loss from evaporation and wind and increases application uniformity.

Low-flow irrigation systems

Include drip/trickle and micro-sprinkler systems, water is dispensed directly to the root zone,

precluding runoff or deep percolation and minimizing

evaporation. Low-flow systems are generally

reserved for perennial crops, such as orchard products and vineyards, or high-valued vegetable crops.

Non-structural measures
Strategies to secure high water productivity:

(i) Genetic manipulation

(ii) Selection of crops and cropping systems

(iii) Agronomic practices (iv) Use of waste water

Genetic manipulation
Improvement of harvest index by increasing the rate of grain filling and accelerating the mobilisation of photoassimilates.

The quantum jump in the yield of rice and wheat (associated with green revolution) and maize (in USA) is attributable to rise in HI from 0.35 before the 1960s to 0.5 plus in the succeeding years.

Breeding water-efficient crop varieties

Selection of crops and cropping systems

Rotating high water-requirement crops, such as corn, with crops needing less water like soybean, winter wheat, and sunflower.

Splitting the field into multiple crops reduce total water requirements for the field and distribute the water

requirements across a longer portion of the growing season.

During vegetative growth some water stress can be tolerated

without affecting grain yield and root development can be encouraged so that the crop can utilize deeper soil water

Indicative value of crop water needs and sensitivity to drought

Crop Alfalfa Banana Barley/Oats/Wheat Bean Cabbage Cotton Maize Onion Peanut Pea Pepper Potato Rice (paddy) Sorghum/Millet Soybean Sugarbeet Sugarcane Sunflower Tomato Crop water need (mm/total growing period) 800-1600 1200-2200 450-650 300-500 350-500 700-1300 500-800 350-550 500-700 350-500 600-900 500-700 450-700 450-650 450-700 550-750 1500-2500 600-1000 400-800 Sensitivity to drought low-medium high low-medium medium-high medium-high low medium-high medium-high low-medium medium-high medium-high high high low low-medium low-medium high low-medium medium-high

Agronomic practices
Agronomic practices such as, seeding at right time, securing optimum plant population, proper tillage and fertilizer

application, pest control, integrated nutrient management and

mulching improve the water productivity

Conservation tillage:
Conservation tillage significantly improves water availability to crops

Ghosh et al. 2010

Normal Indian Soil

Rainwater cannot penetrate deepr or drain, so it floods roots & evaporates rapidly. The flooding prevents plant roots from breathing, which is essential for absorption of nutrients.

6
Crop

Hard Pan

Roots cannot penetrate so plant growth is stunted. Plants are small, weak, needs frequent irrigation & gives low yield.

Deep Soil Chiseling

36
Crop

Roots sink deep to reach perennial water supply & nutrients. Plant grows large, strong & highly productive.

Soft Pan
Rainwater stored deep down where it will not easily evaporate & is available to plants for months

Fertilizer application
Integrated nutrient management combining fertilizers with manures and crop residue have similar positive effects on crop yields leading to improved water productivity

Effect of combination of irrigation and nutrient application on water use efficiency of mustard
Treatment combinationsa WUEseed (kg seed ha -1 mm -1 ) WUEbiomass (kg DM ha -1 mm -1)

I60 F0 I60 F100 I60 F100M10 I120 F0 I120 F100 I120 F100M10 I180 F0 I180 F100 I180 F100M10
a

5.84c 6.42b 7.28a 4.66e 5.94c 6.30b 4.38e 5.48d 5.94c

19.25d 31.53ab 34.24a 17.59de 26.83c 29.48bc 15.46e 26.43c 26.80c

I60, 60 mm pre-sowing and no post-sowing irrigation; I120, 60 mm pre-sowing plus 60 mm post-sowing irrigation at flowering; I180, 60 mm pre-sowing plus 60 mm post-sowing irrigation at rosette and at flowering stage; F0, no fertilizer/manure; F100, 100% NPK (NPK @ 6013.1 16.6 kg ha-1, respectively); F100M10, 100% NPK plus 10 Mg ha-1 farmyard manure

Mandal et al (2006)

Wastewater irrigation: Benefits

Conserves water
Low-cost method for sanitary disposal of municipal wastewater Reduces pollution of rivers, canals and other surface water Conserves nutrients, thereby reducing the need for artificial fertilizer

Increases crop yields

Provides a reliable water supply to

farmers

Wastewater irrigation: Risks

Health risks for and consumers the irrigators

Ground
(nitrates)

water

contamination

Build up of chemical pollutants in the soil (heavy metals)

Creation of habitats for disease vectors (mosquitoes) in peri-urban areas

We need irrigation! But, to deal with the future, We need efficient and well-managed irrigation!

Irrigation technology and water management practices Conventional System and aspect technology
Gravity application systems

Improved technology
Ditch portals or gates; gated pipe; gated pipe with surge flow or cablegation. Applications controlled to avoid runoff;tailwater return systems Alternate furrow wetting; furrow bottomssmooth and consistent Land leveled to reduce and smooth fieldsurface gradient Shorter runs, 1/4 mile or less.

Release of water

Dirt or canvass checks with siphon tubes Water allowed to move off field Full furrow wetting; furrow bottoms uneven Natural field slope, often substantial; uneven field surface Length of field, often 1/2 mile or more

Field runoff

Furrow management

Field gradient Length of irrigation run

System and aspect

Pressurized application systems

Conventional technology

Improved technology

Pressure requirements Water distribution

High pressure, typically above 60 psi

Reduced pressure requirements, often 10-30 psi More narrow water dispersal through sprinkler droptubes, improved emitter spacing, and lowflow systems

Large water dispersal pattern

Automation

Self-propelled systems; Handmove systems; computer control of water manually operated systems applications Limited to specific crops; used only to apply irrigation water Multiple crops; various uses- irrigation, chemigation, manure application, frost protection, crop cooling

Versatility