CUKUP MULYANA

FLUID MECHANICS

INTRODUCTION
A fluid, such as Fluid mechanics is water or air, deforms concerned with the Field of Fluid Mechanics cancontinuously into 3 be divided when behavior of liquids branches: acted on by and gases at rest shearing stresses and in Statics: mechanics of fluids at rest of Fluid motion any magnitude

The without considering forces or energy fluid characteristics we Fluid Dynamics: deals with the relations a We treat the fluid as between are interested in velocities and accelerations and forces exerted continuum. (pressure, upon fluids in motion by or velocity, etc) vary continuously throughout the fluida

What is fluid Kinematics: deals with velocities ? streamlines mechanics and

The properties that play an important role in the analysis of fluid behavior are considered.
Density The density of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume

Specific volume Specific weight is weight per unit volume; specific gravity is the ration of fluid density to the density of water at a certain temperature.

Specific weight and specific gravity

Viscosity Ideal Gas Law

Fluid motion can cause shearing stresses

Viscosity

Dynamic viscosity is the fluid property that relates shearing stress and fluid motion.

Viscosity is very The various Kinematic viscosity is fluids are types of non-Newtonian sensitive to defined as their apparent distinguished by howthe ratio of the viscosity temperature. absolute viscosity torate changes with shear the fluid density

Compressibility of Speed of Sound Fluids The velocity at which small disturbances propagate in a Liquids are usuallycalled the speed of fluid is considered to be sound imcompressible, whereas
gases are generally considered compressible.

FLUID STATICS
There are no sheaering stresses present in a fluid at rest.

The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is independent of direction

Basic Equation for Pressure Field

The pressure may vary across a fluid particle

Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

Incompressible Fluid

FLUID KINEMATICS
Kinematics involves The Acceleration position, velocity, an Field acceleration, not force Fluid parameters can be described by a field representation The Velocity Field

The Velocity Field

Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow Descriptions

Euleran method, uses the field concept introduced above. In this case, the fluid motion is given by completely prescribing the necessary properties (pressure, density, velocity, etc) as functions of space and time. From this method we obtain information about the flow in terms of what happens at fixed points in space as the fluid flows past those points.

Lagrangian method, involves following individual fluid particles as they move about and determining how the fluid properties associated with these particles changes as a function of time. That is the fluid particles are tagged or identified and their properties determined as they move.

One-, Two-, and ThreeDimensional Flows

Flow

Steady

Unstead y

Viscou s

Unviscou s

Laminer

Turbulen

STREAMLIN STREAKLIN STREAMLINES, STREAKLINE, AND PATHLINE PATHLINE ES E Streamlines

are lines tangent to the velocity field A streakline consists of all particles in a flow that have previously passed through a common point The pathline is a A pathline is the Lagrangian cocept that line traced out by can be produced in the laboratory by marking a given particle fluid particle (dying a as it flows from small fluid element) and one point to taking a time exposure another photograph of its motion.

STREAMLINES, STREAKLINE, AND PATHLINE

THE ACCELERATION FIELD

Acceleration is the
time rate of change of velocity for a given particle

THE ACCELERATION FIELD

Where the operator

The material derivative is used to describe time rates of change for a given particle.

CONTROL VOLUME AND SYSTEM REPRESENTATION

A control volume, on the other hand, is a volume in space (geometric entity, independent of mass) through which fluid may flow

A system is a specific, identifiable quantity of matter. It may consist of a relatively large amount of mass (such as all of the air in the earths atmosphere), or it may be an infinitesimal size (such as a single fluid particle)

The general Reynolds transport theorem involves volume and surface integrals.

ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

The Bernoulli equation Newtons Second Lawthe most used may be and abused equation in fluid mechanics Inviscid fluid flow
in governed by pressure and gravity force

(Net pressure force on a particle) + (net gravity force on particle) = (particle mass) (particle acceleration)

Fluid particles accerate normal to and along streamlines.

F = ma along a Streamline

The Bernoulli equatin can be obtained by integrating F = ma along a streamline.

F = MA NORMAL TO A STREAMLINE
To apply F = ma normal to streamlines, the normal component of force are needed.

The sum of pressure, elevation, and velocity effects is constant across streamlines.

RESTRICTION ON USE OF THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Compressibility

Unsteady Effects

Rotational Effects

FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

Conservation of Mass ---- The Continuity Equation

The amount of mass in a system is constant.

The continuity equation is a statement that mass is conserved

Newtons Second Law ---- The Linear Momentum and Momnet of Momentum Equations
Newtons second law of motion for a system is Time rate of change of the linear momentum of the system Sum of external forces acting on the system

The linear momentum equation is a statement of Newtons second law.

Newtons second law deals with system momentum and foces.

The energy equation involves stored energy, heat transfer, and work

First Law of Thermodynamics--- The Energy Equation

The energy equation is a statement of the first of thermodynamics.
Time rate of increase of the total stored energy of the system

Net time rate of energy addition by heat transfer into the system

Net time rate of energy addition by work transfer into the system

In this chapter we will provide an introduction to the differential equations that describe (in detail) the FLUID FLOW DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF motion of fluids. Unfortunately, we will also find that these equations are rather complicated, partial Differential equations that cannot be solved differential analysis provides exactly except in a fewdetailed knowledge of making some very case, at least without a simpliying assumptions. Thus, flow field differential analysis has althought the potential for supplying very detailed information about flow fields, this information is not easily extracted. Finally, it is to be noted that with the availability of powerful digital computers it is feasible to attemp to solve the differential equations using the techniques of numerical analysis. Although it is beyond the scope of this book to delve into this approach, which is generally referred to as computational fluid dynamics (CFD), the reader should be aware of this approach to complex flow problems.

Fluid Element Kinematics

Velocity and Acceleration Fields Revisited A small fluid element in the shape of a cube which is initially in one position will move to another position during a short time t interval as illustrated in figure.

The acceleration of a fluid particle can be expressed as

And in component form

The acceleration is also concisely expressed as

Where the operator

The acceration of a fluid particle is described using the concept of the mateial dirvative.

Linear Motion and Deformation

This rate of change of the volume per unit volume is called the volumetric dilatation rate

For an incrompressible fluid the volumetric dilatation rate is zero, since the elemnet volume cannot change without a change in fluid density (the element mass must be conserved)

Angular Motion and Deformation

Vorticity in a flow field is related to fluid particle rotation.

More generally it then the rotation (and the vorticity) are zero, and flow fields for which this condition applies are termed irrotational

Conservation of Mass
Conservation of mass requires that the mass of a system remain constant.

Net rate of mass outflow in x direction

Net rate of mass outflow in y direction

Net rate of mass outflow in z direction

The continuity equation isi one of the fundamental equations of fluid mechanics.
Two special cases are of particular interest. For steady flow of compressible fluids

The Stream Function

Steady, incompressible, plane, two-dimensional flow represents one of the simplest types flow of practical importance

Continuity equation is identically satisfied

Conservation of Linear Momentum

The resultant force acting on a fluid mass is equal to the time rate of change of the linera momentum of the mass.

Description of Forces Acting on the Differntial Element

Both surface forces and body forces generally act on fluid particles.

Body force

Can be expressed by

Surface forces act on the element as a result of its iteraction with its surroundings. At any arbitrary location within a fluid mass, the force acting on a smaal area, A, which lies in arbitrary surface, can be represented by Fs.

Surface forces acting on a fluid element can be described in terms of normal and shearing stresses.

For example, for the rectangular coodinate system, we choose to consider the stresses acting on planes parallel to the coordinate planes. On the plane ABCD of figure, which is parallel to the y-z plane, the normal stress is denoted xxand the shearing stresses are denoted as xy and xz.

We now can express the surface forces acting on a small cubical element of fluid in terms of the stresses acting on the faces of the element as shown in figure

Equations of Motion

Inviscid Flow
Flow fields in which the shearing stresses are zero are said to be invicid, nonviscous, or frictionless

Eulers Equations of Motion

In vector notation

If = 0

So..
The Bernoulli equation applies along a streamline for inviscid fluids.

Irrotational Flow

The vorticity is zero in an irrotational flow field

The Velocity Potential

For an irrotational flow the velocity comoponents can be expressed in terms of a scalar function as

For an incompressible fluid we knnow from conservation of mass that

Viscous Flow
To incorporate viscous effects into the differential analysis of fluid motion we must return to the previouly derived general equations of motions

Since these equations include both stresses and velocities, there are more unknwns than equations, and therefore before proceeding it is necessary to establish a relationship between the stresses and velocities.

Stress-Deformation Relationships
For incompressible Newtonian fluids it is known that the stresses are linearly related to the rates of deformation and can be expressed in Cartesian coordinates as (for normal stresses) where p is pressure.

For shearing stresses

The Navier-Stokes Equations

The Navier-Stokes equations are the basic differential equations describing the flow of incompressible Newtonian fluids

X direction

X direction

X direction

Other Aspects of Differential Analysis

The Navier Stokes equations, which can be compactly expressed in vestor notation as

Along with the continuity equation

The energy equation involves stored energy, heat transfer, and work.

SIMILITUDE, DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS, AND MODELING

Multi phase flow

Application of

Applications of Dynamic Fluids In Geophysics

Ocea n

Atmosphere

Barotropic and Vortex Dynamic

Subsurface / Fluid Flow through Porous Media

Ocean

Mass and Density

Momentum

Boundary Conditions

Atmospher e

Buoyancy Oscillation s and Convectio n

A Stratified Resting State

Equation of State for an Ideal Gas

Pressure Coordinates

Hydrostatic Balance

Subsurface / Mechanics of Fluid Flow throuht Porous Media

By a porous medium we mean a material consisting of a solid matrix with an interconnected void The interconnectedness of the void (the pores) allows the ow of one or more uids through the material. In the simplest situation (single-phase ow) the void is saturated by a single uid In two-phase ow a liquid and a gas share the void space

Examples of natural porous media are beach sand, sandstone, limestone, rye bread, wood, and the human lung
Howwe treat a owthrough a porous structure is largely a question of distance

When the distance is short, the observer sees only one or two channels, or

When the distance is large so that there are many channels and cavities in the problem solvers eld of vision, the complications of the ow paths rule out the conventional approach In this case it is possible to use conventional uid mechanics and convective heat transfer to describe what happens at every point the uid- and solid-lled spaces

When the distance is large so that there are many channels and cavities in the problem solvers eld of vision, the complications o the ow paths rule out the conventional approach
In this limit, volume-averaging and globalmeasurements (e.g., permeability, conductivity) are useful in describing the ow and in simplifying the description.

The usual way of deriving the laws governing the macroscopic variables is to beginwith the standard equations obeyed by the uid and to obtain themacroscopic equations by averaging over volumes or areas containing many pores

spatial and statistical

The porosity of a porous medium is dened as the fraction of the total volume of the medium that is occupied by void space. In dening in this way we are assuming that all the void space is connected. If in fact one has to deal with a medium in which some of the pore space is disconnected from the remainder, then one has to introduce an effective porosity, dened as the ratio of connected void to total volume.

. A distinction is made between an average taken with respect to a volume element Vm of the medium (incorporating both solid and uid material) and one taken with respect to a volume element Vf consisting of uid only Vm by v = (u,v,w). Darcy velocity

Taking an average of the uid velocity over a volume Vf we get the intrinsic average velocity V, which is related to v by the Dupuit-Forchheimer relationship v=V

We now discuss various forms of the momentum equation which is the porousmedium analog of the Navier-Stokes equation

Henry Darcys (1856) investigations into the hydrology of the water supply of Dijon and his experiments on steady-state unidirectional owin a uniformmedium revealed a proportionality between ow rate and the applied pressure differenc

Here P/x is the pressure gradient in the ow direction and is the dynamic viscosity of the uid. The coefcient K is independent of the nature of the uid but it depends on the geometry of the medium. It has dimensions (length) 2 and is called the specic permeability or intrinsic permeability of the medium

Values ofKfor naturalmaterials varywidely.Typical values for soils, in terms of the unit m2 , are: clean gravel 107 109 , clean sand 109 1012 , peat 1011 1013

Darcys law has been veried by the results of many experiments. Theoretical backing for it has been obtained in variousways,with the aid of either deterministic or statistical models

This theoretical development is not restricted to either homogeneous or spatially periodic porous media, but it does assume that there are no abrupt changes in the structure of the medium If the medium has periodic structure, then the homogenization method can be used to obtain mathematically rigorous results

This equation was obtained by analogy with the Navier-Stokes equation. Beck (1972) pointed out that the inclusion of the (v )v termwas inappropriate because it raised the order (with respect to space derivatives) of the differential equation, and this was inconsistent with the slip boundary condition (appropriate when Darcys law was employed). More importantly, the inclusion of (v )v is not a satisfactoryway of expressing the nonlinear drag,which arises frominertial effects, since (v )v is identically zero for steady incompressible unidirectional ow no matter howlarge the uid velocity, and this is clearly in contradiction to experience. There is a further fundamental objection. In the case of a viscous uid amaterial particle retains itsmomentum, in the absence of applied forces,when it is displaced from a point A to a neighboring arbitrary point B. But in a porous medium with a xed solid matrix this is not so, in general, because some solid material impedes the motion and causes a change in momentum.

The (v )v term is generally small in comparison with the quadratic drag term (see Section 1.5.2) and then it seems best to drop it in numerical work.

The accuracy of the numerical solution thus obtained depends on the order of performing the operations. Wooding (2005) showed that taking a certain linear combination of the two solutions produces a solution of optimal accurac