SOME GREAT PHILOSOPHERS & MANAGEMENT

By FATH KARAKAYA & AHMET KKOSMANOLU

THE BACKGROUND OF GREAT PHILOSOPHERS TIMES TRADITIONAL AUTHORITIES:

Monarchs (Royal), Aristocrats (Feudal), Clergy (Religious)

EUROPE WAS NOT THE CENTER OF CIVILIZATIONS

Geographical Explorations,
Americas, India, Africa

Transfer of Eastern Knowledge

Arabic and Muslim Civilization, Indirectly, Former Greek Civilization, Far East Civilizations (China, India)

THE BACKGROUND OF GREAT PHILOSOPHERS TIMES ACCUMULATION OF WEALTH THRU,

Colonization, Slavery Advance of Knowledge and Science

AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT (XVIIth and XVIIIth Centuries)

Starting from 1500s Machiavelli, The Prince, 1513 French Revolution 1789 Ending at Napoleonic Wars 1804

THE BACKGROUND OF GREAT PHILOSOPHERS TIMES NEVER ENDING WARS,

After centuries of Crusades, Civil Wars of England, France & Germany Holland Liberation War from Spain,

VICIOUS CIRCLE OF INFECTIVE DISEASES,

Due to poor hygenic conditions and culture And high population, Plaque, cholera, typhus, tuberculosis

ERODING POWER OF TRADITIONAL AUTHORITIES

Equality claims versus fall of Aristocracy Private Property Right and fall of Feudalism Rising Secularism versus fall of Clergy

COMMON CONCEPTS OF POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY :

The theory which explains the relations of men, society and governing authority.

THE STATE OF NATURE :

Describes native insticts, behaviours and moral values of human without being attached to society, culture and religion etc.

SOVEREIGNITY:

The absolute authority to manage a society and to make final decisions binding all the members of that society.

REBELLION:

Right of fight against current authority aimed to redefine it.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469 1527)

Machiavelli

Machiavelli

Was an Italian diplomat, political philosopher, musician, and poet.

Machiavelli was a figure of the Italian Renaissance, and a servant of the Florentine Republic.

Machiavelli was born into a tumultuous era in which Popes were leading armies, And wealthy city-states of Italy would fall one after another into the hands of foreign powers France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire.
He entered governmental service as a clerk and ambassador in 1494; that same year, Florence had restored the republic and expelled the Medici family, rulers of the city for nearly sixty years.

Machiavelli

From 1502 to 1503, he was a witness to the effective statebuilding methods of the soldier/churchman Cesare Borgia, who was at that time enlarging his territories in central Italy through a mixture of audacity, prudence, self-reliance, firmness and, not infrequently, cruelty.

Between 1503 to 1506, Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine militia including the defense of the city. He distrusted mercenaries and much preferred a citizen militia.

This philosophy bore fruit when, in 1509, Florence's citizen forces defeated Pisa under Machiavelli's direction

Machiavelli

In 1512, the Medici came back with the help of Pope Julius II and defeated the Florentine forces.
Machiavelli, having played a significant role in the republic's antiMedici government, was removed from office and in 1513 he was accused of conspiracy and arrested. Although tortured, he denied his involvement and was eventually released. He retired and began writing the treatises that would ensure his place in the development of political philosophy and conduct. Died a few miles outside of Florence, in 1527. The Latin sentence on his tomb is translated as No elegy is equal to such a name.

Machiavelli - The Prince

Machiavelli's best known book is The Prince, in which he describes the arts by which a Prince (a ruler), can retain control of his realm.

He focuses primarily on what he calls the "new prince", under the assumption that a hereditary prince has an easier task since the people are accustomed to him. There are surprisingly big similarities to The Fair Prince, book of Ibn Zafar who is a muslim philosopher, lived 300 year before.

Machiavelli & Management - The Prince

All a hereditary prince needs to do is carefully maintain the institutions that the people are used to; a new prince has a much more difficult task since he must stabilize his newfound power and build a structure that will endure.

This task requires the Prince to be publicly above reproach but privately may require him to do immoral things in order to achieve his goals. Machiavelli doesnt dispense entirely with morality nor advocate whole selfishness or degeneracy but he gives definitions of the criteria for acceptable cruel actions (it must be swift, effective, and short-lived).

Machiavelli & Management - The Prince

The Prince is a guide to acquiring and keeping power. In contrast with Plato and Aristotle, the ideal society is not the aim.

In fact, Machiavelli emphasizes the need for the exercise of brute power when necessary and rewards patron-clientelism etc. to preserve the status quo. A ruler will perish if he is always good; he must be as cunning as a fox and as fierce as a lion.

The primary contribution of The Prince to the history of political thought is its fundamental break between realism and idealism.

Machiavelli & Management - The Prince

A prince is also respected when he is either a true friend or a downright enemy A prince who does not understand the art of war, over and above the other misfortunes already mentioned, cannot be respected by his soldiers A prince ought, above all things, always to endeavour in every action to gain for himself the reputation of being a great and remarkable man.

Machiavelli & Management - Discourses on Livy

Machiavelli's Discourse on the First Ten Books of Titus Livy comprises the early history of Rome.

Describes how a republic should be started and structured, including the concept of checks and balances, the strength of a tripartite structure and the superiority of a republic over a principality.

"In fact, when there is combined under the same constitution a prince, a nobility, and the power of the people, then these three powers will watch and keep each other reciprocally in check." Book I, Chapter II

Machiavelli & Management - Discourses on Livy

"...if we compare the faults of a people with those of princes, as well as their respective good qualities, we shall find the people vastly superior in all that is good and glorious." Book I, Chapter LVIII

"...the governments of the people are better than those of princes." Book I, Chapter LVIII

"Now in a well-ordered republic it should never be necessary to resort to extra-constitutional measures...." Book I, Chapter XXXIV

Machiavelli & Management - Discourses on Livy

"For government consists mainly in so keeping your subjects that they shall be neither able nor disposed to injure you...." Book II, Chapter XXIII

"...no prince is ever benefited by making himself hated." Book III,Chapter XIX

"In fact, the life of a private citizen would be preferable to that of a king at the expense of the ruin of so many human beings." Book I, Chapter XXVI

Machiavelli & Management -Resistance to Innovation-

There is nothing more difficult to plan, more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to manage than the creation of a new order of things. Whenever his enemies have occasion to attack the innovator, they do so with the passion of partisans, while the others defend him sluggishly so that the innovator and his party alike are vulnerable. Niccolo Machiavelli The Prince (1513)

Machiavelli & Management - Machiavelli's Traits of a Good Ruler -

The ruler must always appear truthful and honest, even if they are not. The ruler must surround himself with wise people who are willing to speak the truth. If inflicting cruelty or harshness,the ruler should do it all at once to lessen the pain. Benefits should be given out little by little.

Machiavelli & Management - Machiavelli's Traits of a Good Ruler

The total of a man's traitsmake him honorable, not the station he was born to. The ruler who wishes to keep power should not always do only good. Somebody will come along and steal control. For a ruler, it is much better to be feared than loved. The ruler must, if necessary, always be ready to do eviI.

Was Machiavelli a Machiavellian?

The term "Machiavellian" was originally offered to explain the actions to be taken for JUST' reasons of state.

However, the term Machiavellian as it is used today is a misnomer, as it describes one who deceives and manipulates others for gain; whether the gain is personal or not is of no relevance, only that any actions taken are only important insofar as they affect the results.

It fails to include some of the more moderating themes found in Machiavelli's works and the name is now associated with the extreme viewpoint.

Thomas Hobbes (1588 1679)

Hobbes

Hobbes

An English Empiricist and Rationalist philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy
From the perspective of social contract theory, the method of justifying political principles/arrangements among suitably situated Rational, Free, and Equal persons. Thomas Hobbes was born prematurely in England 1588, when his mother heard of the coming invasion of the Spanish Armada. He was not born to power or wealth or influence. He was lucky that his uncle was wealthy enough to provide for his education. His intellectual ability brought him to university at Oxford.

Hobbes

Through tutoring the son of an important noble family, Hobbes entered in circles where the activities of the King, of Members of Parliament and other nobles were discussed.

Civil Wars of 1642-46 led to the King being executed and a republic being declared. Hobbes felt forced to leave the country and lived in France from 1640 to 1651.

In France, Hobbes got the chance to engage as mathematics instructor to the young Charles, Prince of Wales (later King Charles II).

Hobbes

There, Hobbes produced his most famous book, Leviathan (1651) to set forth his theory of civil government in relation to the political crisis resulting from the war.

The book made a great and sudden impact. Due to Rationalist and Secular implications of the book, he got into trouble with Anglicans, French Catholichs and the royalists in exile.

He is forced to appeal back to the Revolutionary English Government for protection.

Hobbes

In 1660, King Charles II, took monarchy back to England and Hobbes once more got very popular.
Against all objections of religious and the parliamentary figures, Hobbes is accepted to Palace and is granted a regular salary. In 1666, House of Commons prepared a law against atheism and disrespect of religion.

Afterwards, they wanted to start prosecution about Leviathan. This led Hobbes to burn some of his valuable papers for fear of prosecution. He stopped his political studies until he died in 1679.

Hobbes & Management - Leviathan

The State, might be regarded as a great monster (Biblical sea monster Leviathan),

Which is composed of men, with a life that might be traced from its generation under pressure of human needs to its dissolution through civil strife proceeding from human passions.

In Leviathan, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments - based on social contract theories.

Hobbes & Management - Leviathan

Leviathan was written during the English Civil War; much of the book is occupied with demonstrating the necessity of a strong central authority to avoid the evil of discord and civil war.

It was a direct response to the war which raised the question of the subject's right to change allegiance when a former sovereign's power to protect was irrecoverably gone.

Also he criticized religious doctrines on rationalistic grounds in the Commonwealth.

Hobbes & Management - Leviathan

Each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world which is called State of Nature. This inevitably leads to conflict.

Hobbes finds three basic causes of the conflict in this state of nature: competition, diffidence and glory, The first maketh men invade for gain; the second, for safety; and the third, for reputation.

A "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes), and thus lives of people are "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.

Hobbes & Management - Leviathan

To escape this state of war, men in the state of nature accede to a social contract and establish a civil society.

According to Hobbes, society is a population beneath a sovereign authority, to whom all individuals in that society cede their natural rights for the sake of protection.

Any abuses of power by this authority are to be accepted as the price of peace. However, he also states that in severe cases of abuse, rebellion is expected.

Hobbes & Management

There are only three kinds of Commonwealth:

Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democrasy.

All others are just extreme forms. Such as,

Monarchy to become a Tyranny, Aristocracy to turn into Oligarchy and Democracy to give a way to Anarchy.

Hobbes & Management

Hobbes Social Contract claims, Because a successive covenant cannot override a prior one, the subjects(people) cannot (lawfully) change the form of government.

This idea has been the base for the idea of unchangeable parts in modern Constitutional Law.

The doctrine of separation of powers is rejected: The sovereign must control civil, military, judicial and ecclesiastical powers.

Hobbes & Management

Hobbes ideas gives a secular justification for the State. He strongly rejects religious authority atributed to Monarch or Sovereign.

Any abuses of power by this authority are to be accepted as the price of peace. This idea is later used to justify the Colonization.

Hatred of wars, poverty and chaos led Hobbes to a relative extreme to think Monarchy as the best regime, sent by God to help mankind

Hobbes & Management

Hobbes presented man as a self-interested and rationally calculating actor.

Those ideas have been important in modern political philosophy and economic thought, especially in terms of rational choice theories which explain human motivation.

People are shortsighted, and so indulge their current interests without properly considering the effects of their current behavior on their long-term interest.

Hobbes & Management

Management side of his social contract theory implies that, to have efficient management, a manager should derive his authority from the consent of who are being managed.

Our judgments tend to be distorted by self-interest or by the pleasures and pains. As an empiricist, Hobbes thinks that human judgment is unreliable, and needs to be guided by science.

This idea is considered as an early call for Scientific Management.

John Locke (1632 1704)

Locke

English philosopher, founder of British empiricism and Epistemology.

Locke summed up the Enlightenment in,

his belief in the middle class and its right to freedom of conscience and right to private property, in his faith in science, and in his confidence in the goodness of humanity.

His influence upon philosophy and political theory has been incalculable. He is known to be father of forefathers

Locke

He was the son of a lawyer who served as a legal clerk to the Justices of the Peace in the county of Somerset.

He went to Westminster School, then to Oxford for six years, first as a student but later as a lecturer in Greek and rhetoric.

1665 he went on a diplomatic mission to Prussia and shortly after his return he met the rich, intelligent and powerful Lord Ashley, whose life Locke proceeded to save by operating on him to cure his liver condition.

Locke

As a result of their close friendship, Locke got very close to Ashley family and Ashley became Lord Chancellor in 1672(and later, Earl of Shaftesbury) Locke was given various administrative posts and acted as political secretary and tutor to Shaftesbury's son. The following year, Shaftesbury lost his position for opposing the King and Locke went to France to improve his poor health.

He remained there for four years, mixing with many of the followers of Ren Descartes,

Locke

He returned to England at Shaftesbury's request. For the following two years Locke was engaged in political intrigue of the highest order;

He worked on Shaftesbury's behalf against the future Catholic King, James II. When these intrigues were discovered, Shaftesbury was arrested, tried and acquitted.

Later that year Locke fled to Holland, and went into hiding for a period under a different name as a result of English demands for his extraditation.

Locke

He used these years to work on his most famous books, Essay Concerning Human Understanding and Two Treatises of Government.
Shortly after James II was driven from the throne in 1688, Locke returned to London and from 1690 onwards published most of his works on philosophy, education and religion. He became very famous in England and Europe as the leading philosopher of freedom. For his last fifteen years he lived a peaceful retirement in London, dying as a highly respected man.

Locke
- Essay Concerning Human Understanding

In the Essay Concerning Human Understanding Locke examines the nature of human mind and the process by which it knows the world.

Rejecting the traditional doctrine of innate ideas, Locke believed that the mind is born blank, a tabula rasa upon which the world describes itself through the experience of the five senses.

Science is possible, Locke maintained, because the primary world affects the sense organs mechanically, thus producing ideas that faithfully represent reality.

Locke& Management
- Two Treatises on Civil Government

He is most renowned for his political theory. In contrast to Hobbes, Locke believed that original state of nature was happy and characterized by reason and tolerance.

In that state all people were equal and independent, and none had a right to harm another's "life, health, liberty, or possessions.

The state was formed by social contract, because in the state of nature each was his own judge, and there was no protection against those who lived outside the law of nature.

Locke& Management
- Two Treatises on Civil Government

Locke based his ethical theories upon belief in the natural goodness of humanity.

The inevitable pursuit of happiness and pleasure, when conducted rationally, leads to cooperation, and in the long run private happiness and the general welfare coincide.

Rights of property are very important, because each person has a right to the product of his or her labor. Locke forecasted the labor theory of value.

Locke& Management
- Two Treatises on Civil Government

Revolution (Rebellion) in such circumstances is not only a right but an obligation.

Governments, which were formed by the people, must guarantee the rights of the people. People have a right to rebel against tyrannies.

Locke was a strong proponent of the separate legislative, judiciary & executive powers.

Locke& Management
- Two Treatises on Civil Government -

As one of the forefathers and biggest contributors of liberal theory, he influenced Voltaire, Rousseau and the American revolutionaries. This is reflected in the American Declaration of Independence.

a liberty to dispose, and order, as he lists, his person, actions, possessions, and his whole property, within the allowance of those laws under which he is; and therein not to be subject to the arbitrary will of another, but freely follow his own.

Locke & Management

Locke believed that ownership of property is created by the application of labor.

In addition, property precedes government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily.

Locke & Management

Locke unlike Hobbes, leans towards a democracy over a sovereign. Policy of governmental checks and balances, as delineated in the Constitution of the United States, was set down by Locke.

Claimed that all men are created equal. Whereas, Locke justified slavery on the grounds that those who became slaves were originally in a state of wrongful war.

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689 1755)

Montesquieu

He is a French social commentator and political thinker of Enlightenment Era.

He is famous of the theory of separation of powers, taken for granted in modern discussions of government and implemented in many constitutions throughout the world.

Montesquieu

Was born on January 19th, 1689 at La Brde, near Bordeaux, to a noble and prosperous family.

After having studied at the Catholic College, he is married with a Protestant lady at the age of 26.

The next year, he inherited a fortune upon the death of his uncle, as well as the title Baron de Montesquieu.

Montesquieu

His Persian Letters (1721) brought him immediate fame. In these letters, supposedly written by Persian travelers in Europe and by their friends, he satirized and criticized French insititutions including church and monarchs.

His greatest work The Spirit of the Laws , a comparative study of three types of governmentrepublic, monarchy, and despotism was originally published anonymously in 1748,

It quickly rose to a position of enormous influence and it met with an unfriendly reception from both supporters and opponents of the regime.

Montesquieu

Besides composing additional works on society and politics Montesquieu traveled for a number of years through Europe, before resettling in France.

He was troubled by poor eyesight, and was completely blind by the time he died from a high fever in 1755. He was buried in the glise Saint-Sulpice, Paris.

Montesquieu & Management

- The Spirit of The Laws

Montesquieu divided French society into three classes: the monarchy, the aristocracy, and the commons.

Montesquieu saw two types of governmental power existing: the sovereign and the administrative.
The administrative powers were the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. Seperation of Powers: These three should be separate from and dependent upon each other so that the influence of any one power would not be able to exceed that of the other two, either singly or in combination.

Montesquieu & Management

Three main forms of government: Monarchy,

Laws protect institutions of nobility and independent judiciary. Principle is honor, it naturally comes not earned. Hence education is less critical.

Democracy,

People are sovereign. Virtue is the principle; Preference of public to private interest. Education is more important.

Despotism,

A despotic government is corrupt in nature Fear is the principle.

Montesquieu & Management

Montequieu believes that climate and geography affect the government style and nature of people.

Despotism developed over the lands with dry, though climate.

Monarchy is most suitable for countries of productive land and moderate climate.

Democracy prevails over the countries with barren land but moderate climate

Montesquieu & Management

He endorsed the idea that women are weaker than men and that they had to obey the commands of their husbands at home.

However, he also felt that women did have the ability to govern. Calmness and gentleness of women would be helpful qualities in making decisions in government.

Montesquieu & Management

Despite Montesquieu's belief in the principles of a democracy, he did not feel that all people were equal.

He firmly accepted the role of a hereditary aristocracy and the value of primogeniture. Montesquieu thinks that "the state of slavery is in its own nature bad. However, is more tolerable at despotic countries and at unusually hot climate countries.

Montesquieu Is Slavery Tolerable?

The state of slavery is in its own nature bad. However, is more tolerable at despotic countries and at unusually hot climate countries.(Montesquieu)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

He is a major Swiss philosopher and composer of the Enlightenment, whose political philosophy.

Influenced the French and American Revolutions and the development of liberal, conservative, and socialist theory.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

His mother died shortly after his birth, his father abandoned him about a decade later.

In 1742 Rousseau went to Paris to become a musician and composer. In 1745 and met a linen-maid, who would become his lifelong companion.
They had five children together, all of whom were left at the Paris orphanage

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

In 1750, he published the Discourse on the Arts and Sciences for Academy of Dijons essay contest. This made Rousseau famous as it won the prize. The work was widely read and was controversial. Music was still a major part of Rousseaus life at this point, and his opera, The Village Soothsayer was a great success. But Rousseau attempted to live a modest life despite his fame, and after the success of his opera, he gave up music.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

In 1753, he submitted an essay to the contest of Academy of Dijon. Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men.

The judges were irritated by its unorthodox philosophical claims. They never finished to read it.
However, Rousseau had already published it and it was also widely read and discussed.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

In 1753, he published his definitive work, The Social Contract. Paris authorities condemned his book.

Rousseau was forced to flee to Switzerland and then to England.

In 1764 he began writing his autobiography, his Confessions which would be published several years after his death. In 1767, he returned to the southeast of France and lived there until he died in 1778.

Rousseau & Management - Disourses on the Origin of Inequality -

What is the origin of inequality among the men; is it authorized by the natural law?

Human nature is peaceful and good (not sinful or cruel innate). Human has free will to choose that differs him from animals.

Rousseau & Management - Disourses on the Origin of Inequality -

Unfair social systems and corruption of nature produces inequality.

Scientific progress and division of labor increased both the competition and dependency, The pressures of those which eventually fostered greed and jealousy.

Rousseau
Man is born free, but everywhere is in chains.

Rousseau & Management - Social Contract -

Man is born free, but everywhere is in chains. Free will of individuals contribute to General Will of society. Law should protect rights of the weak, as much as that of powerful.

Rousseau & Management - Social Contract -

Social Contract should be redesigned as to respect the rights of citizens on the basis of equality and individual liberty.
If government does not respect the rights of citizens, then social contract becomes void and rebellion is justified. His theories in Social Contract, fundamentally shaped The French and American revolutions.

Rousseau & Management

He introduced the concept of General Will to describe the joint opinion and interest of society.
He requires three pillars for a virtuous state:
To follow General Will at all actions, Ensure everybody is in obedience with General Will Needs and interests of public are met.

Rousseau & Management

It is unnatural for a majority to rule, for a majority can seldom be organized and united for specific action, and a minority can.

State is respected as long as it respects the right of citizens.

He made a sharp distinction between soverignity and government. The government is in charge with enforcing the General Will.

Conclusions

Radical Changes in Public Management Thought

Free Will, Equality, Liberty and Social Contract concepts are introduced which irreversibly changed the distribution of power and redefined Sovereignity. Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau endorsed that we are free, moral individuals, able to make decisions, control our own destiny, and contribute to a social contract.

Secular claims of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseu fundamentally destroyed the power of Church on Public Management.

Conclusions

Radical Changes in Public Management Thought

Concept of Seperation of Power emerged. That paved the way to Modern Political Theory.

Montesquieu has made a distinction betweeen Sovereignity and Administrative government. Together with Rousseaus Free Will andGeneral Will theories, it became very popular the thought that sovereignity belonged to society itself.

Conclusions

Basis for the Modern Thoughts in Management

Main considerations are Public Management and Government Style and rules of Leadership. Philosophers have not paid specific attention to the Business Management itself. However, main philosophical issues apply to management in theory and practice today: Human Nature, Rationality, Ethics, Legitimacy, Moral Values, Authority and Individual Rights.

Most influential philosophical doctrines such as Empiricism, Rationalism, Realism and Liberalism, that shaped modern management theories are started to flourish.

Conclusions

Basis for the Modern Thoughts in Management

The notions of Free Will and Liberty later flourished the notion of Entrepreneurship, someone freely decides to pursue a risky venture in the hope of receiving profit. Hobbes and Locke as founders of British Empiricism asserted that human judgment needed guidance of Science which was an early call for Scientific Management.

John Locke claimed private ownership of property that is created by labor. This concept is later used in Circular Flow of Income Theory of Capitalism.