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Form 5

Physics
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The study of matter

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Chapter 5: Radioactivity

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Physics: Chapter 5
Objectives:
(what you will learn)

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1)
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understanding nucleus of atom radioactive decay uses of radioisotopes

2) 3)

4)
5)

nuclear energy
management of radioactive substances

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Nucleus of atom
An atom consists of a central nucleus where most of the mass of the atom is concentrated. Orbiting around nucleus are electrons.
A helium atom

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+

n n

4 He 2
+
n

proton neutron electron

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The nucleus is composed of protons that are positively charged, and neutrons that are neutral. Nucleons = protons + neutrons

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Nucleus of atom
proton number (Z) = the number of protons in nucleus nucleon number (A) = the number of nucleons (protons & neutrons) in nucleus nuclide = a nucleus species with a certain proton number & certain nucleon number

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AX Z

represents nucleus with proton number Z & nucleon A represents nuclide with 2 protons & 4 nucleons The number of neutrons is 4 2 = 2

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4 He 2

Isotopes = nuclides with same proton number, different nucleon numbers

Isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties but different physical properties, such as mass.

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Example isotopes:

1H (hydrogen) 1

2H (deuterium) 1

3H (tritium) 1

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Nucleus of atom
Rutherfords alpha-particle (-particle) scattering experiment
Rutherford bombarded gold foil with -particles. Most -particles go through gold foil undeflected as the nucleus is very tiny (occupies a small fraction of the volume of atom). Some -particles are slightly deflected, others are deflected through large angles. The positive -particles are repelled by a massive, positively charged nucleus.

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vacuum

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-particle source

Gold foil Fluorescent screen

-particle deflected

Telescope

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Radioactive decay
Radioactivity = spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei accompanied by emission of energetic particles or radiations (photons). Spontaneous disintegration = emissions of the particles or photons are not planned in advance

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Radioactive decay is random because it is not possible to predict which nuclei the number of nuclei that would decay at a particular instant Radioactive decay is not affected by physical conditions such as temperature and pressure, chemical composition

The particles emitted in radioactive decays are -particles and particles, and the radiation emitted is gamma-ray (-ray).

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Apparatus used to detect radioactive emissions include cloud chamber and Geiger-Muller tube (GM tube).

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Radioactive decay
The tracks of radioactive emissions can be observed in a cloud chamber. -particles tracks:

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thick because of their high ionizing power straight because of the comparative large mass all of same length because they are emitted with the same speed

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-particles tracks:
thin because of their weak ionizing power wavy because of the comparative small mass long because of its relative long range in air

-rays tracks:
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identical to -particles tracks but are short the tracks are those of electrons produced from ionisation of air

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Radioactive decay
Geiger-Muller tube
When connected to a counter, it will count the number of -particles or -ray photons that enters it. When connected to a ratemeter, it will give the number of particles per seconds that enter the GM-tube.

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The GM-tube is unable to detect -particles which cannot penetrate the window of the tube.

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Radioactive decay
Changes to structure of nucleus during radioactive decay. Alpha-decay
A Z

A-4 Z-2

Y +

4 2

He

(-particle)

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Proton number decreases by 2. Nucleon number decreases by 4.

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Beta-decay
A Z

AY + Z+1

0 -1

(-particle)

Proton number increases by 1. Nucleon number unchanged.

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Gamma ray
No changes in the proton number and nucleon number.

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Radioactive decay
The half-life, T of a radioisotope is the time taken for half of the number of nuclei in a sample to decay.

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N0
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N0

N0

It is also the time taken for the rate of decay of a sample to become half.

A0

A0

A0

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Radioactive decay
Radioisotope = an isotope that is radioactive

Uses in medicine (a) -rays from cobalt-60: - radiotherapy to destroy cancerous cells - sterilization to destroy bacteria or germs (b) Radioactive tracers: < Back - iodine-131 to evaluate function of thyroid gland - sodium-24 to estimate volume of blood in patient Next > Uses in agriculture (a) Radioactive tracers used in plant nutrient research. (b) -rays used to sterilize insects, destroy pests/bacteria in food/fruits. Uses in archaeology (a) Carbon-14 dating: Proportion of C-14 to C-12 in living organism is the same as that of the atmosphere. When an organism dies, its proportion decreases. Its age is End estimated by measuring its proportion in sample.

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Radioactive decay

Uses in industry (a) Gauge control GM-tube connected to ratemeter measures thickness of paper by its constant count rate. (b) Leak tracer Sodium-24 used as tracer to locate damaged < Back underground pipes. GM-tube is used to detect high Next > count rate from leaks in the pipe. (c) Quality control -rays (Cobalt-60) used to detect flaws in joints between pipes carrying natural gas. (d) Smoke detector Americium-241 emits -particles which ionizes air particles, allowing current to flow between charged plates. Smoke particles which reduces current flow by End deflecting -particles can then be detected.

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Nuclear Energy
The unit of mass used for measuring the mass of atoms,
Atomic mass unit (a.m.u.), u=
1 12

(mass of an atom of carbon-12)

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1 u = 1.66 x 10-27 kg
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Einsteins energy-mass relation The energy equivalent E of mass m is given by Energy, E = mc2 where c = 3.0 x 108 m s-1 Nuclear fission = splitting of a nucleus into two nuclei

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Slow neutrons are used to split the nucleus.

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Management
2 negative effects of radioactive materials - Somatic damage: near-term death of cells of sensitive organs such as eyes. - Genetic damage: long-term effect; mutation of cells in subsequent generations

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-particles:

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Quite harmless outside body due to short range and weak penetration power. Inside body, they are the most damaging due to their strong ionizing power.
-particles: Harmful both outside and inside body due to stronger penetration power, but moderate ionizing power.

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-rays: Harmful outside body due to strong penetration power.

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Summary
What you have learned: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. understanding nucleus of atom radioactive decay uses of radioisotopes nuclear energy management of radioactive substances

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