Chapter 2

Introduction to Transaction Processing

TPS

Objectives for Chapter 2

Broad objectives of transaction cycles Types of transactions processed by each of the three transaction cycles The basic accounting records used in TPS The traditional accounting records and their magnetic equivalents Documentation techniques Batch and real-time processing and the impact of these technologies on transaction processing

A Financial Transaction is...

an economic event that affects the assets and equities of the firm, is reflected in its accounts, and is measured in monetary terms. similar types of transactions are grouped together into three transaction cycles: the expenditure cycle, the conversion cycle, and the revenue cycle.
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Labor Materials Physical Plant

Customers Finished Goods Cash

Expenditure Cycle
Subsystems: Purchasing/Accts Pay Cash Disbursements Payroll Fixed Assets

Conversion Cycle
Subsystems: Production Planning and Control Cost Accounting

Revenue Cycle
Subsystems: Sales Order Processing Cash Receipts

Finished Goods

Cash

Three Primary Transaction Cycles

Each Cycle has Two Subsystems

Expenditure Cycle: time lag between the two due to credit relations with suppliers: physical component (acquisition of goods) financial component (cash disbursements to the supplier) Conversion Cycle : the production system (planning, scheduling, and control of the physical product through the manufacturing process) the cost accounting system (monitors the flow of cost information related to production) Revenue Cycle: time lag between the two due to credit relations with customers : physical component (sales order processing) financial component (cash receipts)
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Manual System Accounting Records

Source Documents - used to capture and formalize transaction data needed for transaction processing Product Documents - the result of transaction processing Turnaround Documents - a product document of one system that becomes a source document for another system
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Manual System Accounting Records

Journals - a record of chronological entry
special journals - specific classes of transactions that occur in high frequency general journal - nonrecurring, infrequent, and dissimilar transactions

Ledger - a book of financial accounts

general ledger - shows activity for each account listed on the chart of accounts subsidiary ledger - shows activity by detail for each account type
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Flow of Economic Events Into the General Ledger

Purchase Request Journal Entry Purchase Order Purchases Journal Post General Ledger

Post

Accounts Payable Subsidiary Ledger

Audit Trail
Source Document
Journal General Ledger

Financial Statements

Financial Statements

General Ledger

Journal

Source Document

Accountants should be able to trace in both directions. Sampling and confirmation are two common techniques.
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Verifying Accounts Receivable - The Audit Trail Accounts Receivable Control Account-General Ledger

Accounts Receivable Subsidiary Ledger (sum of all customers receivables)

Sales Journal

Cash Receipts Journal

Sales Order Shipping Notice

Deposit Slip Remittance Advice

Example of Tracing an Audit Trail

Computer-Based Systems
The audit trail is less observable in computer-based systems than traditional manual systems. The data entry and computer programs are the physical trail. The data are stored in magnetic files.

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Computer Files
Master File - generally contains account data (e.g., general ledger and subsidiary file) Transaction File - a temporary file containing transactions since the last update Reference File - contains relatively constant information used in processing (e.g., tax tables, customer addresses) Archive File - contains past transactions for reference purposes
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Documentation Techniques
Documentation in a CB environment is necessary for many reasons. Five common documentation techniques:
Entity Relationship Diagram Data Flow Diagrams Document Flowcharts System Flowcharts Program Flowcharts
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Entity Relationship (ER) Diagram

is a documentation technique to represent the relationship between entities in a system. The REA model version of ER is widely used in AIS. REA uses 3 types of entities:
resources (cash, raw materials) events (release of raw materials into the production process) agents (inventory control clerk, vendor, production worker)
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Cardinality
represents the numerical mapping between entities:
one-to-one one-to-many many-to-many

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Cardinalities
Entity Salesperson Relationship Entity

Assigned

Car

1
Customer

Places

Order

Vendor

Supply

Inventory

Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)

use symbols to represent the processes, data sources, data flows, and entities in a system represent the logical elements of the system do not represent the physical system

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Data Flow Diagram Symbols

Entity Name
Data Store Name

N
Process Description

Direction of data flow

Documents Flowcharts
illustrate the relationship among processes and the documents that flow between them contain more details than data flow diagrams clearly depict the separation of functions in a system
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Symbol Set for Document Flowcharts

Terminal showing source or destination of documents and reports Source document or report Manual operation Off-page connector Calculated batch total

On-page connector

File for storing source documents and reports

Accounting records (journals, registers, logs, ledgers)

Description of process or comments

Document flowline

Sales Department
Customer
Customer Order Prepare Sales Orders

Credit Department

Warehouse

Shipping Department

Sales Order #1 Sales Sales Order #1 OrderSales #1 Order #1

First Stages in Constructing Document Flowchart Showing Areas of Activity

Sales Department
Customer
Customer Order Prepare Sales Orders Customer Order Sales Order #1 Sales Sales Order #1 OrderSales #1 Order #1

Credit Department
Sales Order #1 Checks Credit

Warehouse
Sales Order2

Shipping Department
A

Credit Records

Picks Goods

Stock Records

Sales Order 4 Sales Order3

Signed Sales Order #1

Sales Order2

Picks Goods Sales Order 4 Sales Order3 Sales Order2

Signed Sales Order #1

Distribute SO and File Customer Sales Order Sales Signed Order 4 Order #1 Sales Order3 Sales N Order2

A Customer

Finished Document Flowchart Showing Areas of Activity

System Flowcharts
are used to represent the relationship between the key elements--input sources, programs, and output products--of computer systems depict the type of media being used (paper, magnetic tape, magnetic disks, and terminals) in practice, not much difference between document and system flowcharts
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Systems Flowchart Symbols

Hard copy Terminal input/ output device

Computer process

Process flow Real-time (online) connection

Direct access storage device

Video display device

Magnetic tape

Sales Department
Customer

Computer Operations Department

Credit Hist File

Warehouse

Shipping Department

Edit and Credit Check Customer Order Sales Orders Terminal Update Program

AR File

Inventory

First Stages in Constructing System Flowchart Showing Areas of Activity

Sales Department
Customer

Computer Operations Department

Warehouse
Sales Order1

Shipping Department
A

Edit and Credit Check Customer Order Sales Orders Terminal Update Program Customer Order

Credit file

Picks Goods

Stock Records

Sales Order 3 Sales Order2

AR File Sales Order1 Inventory Picks Goods Sales Order2 Sales Order3

N Sales Order 3 Sales Order2 Sales Order1

A Sales Order1 N

Customer

Finished System Flowchart Showing All Facts Translated into Visual Symbols

Program Flowcharts
illustrate the logic used in programs
Program Flowchart Symbols
Logical process
Terminal start or end operation Input/output operation

Decision
Flow of logical process

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The Physical Database Data Hierarchy

Database File Record

Field
Bit - usually magnetically encoded
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Data Structures
allow records to be located, stored, retrieved and allow movement through the database. Two components:
The organization of a file is the physical arrangement of records. The access method is the technique used to locate records and to navigate through the database or file.
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Sequential Access Structure

All records lie in contiguous storage spaces in a specified sequence arranged by their primary key. Data retrieval requires that all records before the desired record must be read in order first. This structure does not allow for a record to be accessed directly.
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Direct Access Structures

Records are stored at unique locations known as addresses. Address tells operating system the exact location of record on the disk. This structure allows for accessing a record without going through all preceding records.
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Index Structure
A separate index exists that is a file of record addresses. The records may be dispersed throughout the disk either randomly or sequentially. A record is found by first searching the index for the address of the desired record. VSAM is an example of using an indexed access method on a large database of sequentially stored records.

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Inserting a Record into an VSAM File

Key 223 Key 226 Key 231 Key 235 Index Key 224 Key 228 Key 233 Key 238 Key 225 Key 229 Key 234 Key 239

Key 240
... ... ... ...

Key 241
... ... ... Key 269

... ...
Prime ... Area ...

Overflow Area Key 237

Key 270

Insert New Record with Key Value = 237

Hashing Structure
employs an algorithm that converts the primary key of a record directly into a unique storage address eliminates the need for a separate index --record retrieval is rapid A disadvantage is that some disk locations will never be selected because they do not correspond to legitimate key values.
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Pointer Structures
A linked-list file stores in a field of one record the address (pointer) of a related record. The records are spread over the entire disk without concern for their physical proximity. Pointers may also be used to link records between files.
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Three Types of Pointers

A physical address pointer contains the actual storage location needed by the disk controller. It is a rapid retrieval method. A relative address pointer contains the relative position of a record in the file. It must be converted to the actual physical address. A logical key pointer contains the primary key of the related record which is then converted to the records physical address using a hashing algorithm.
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Computer-Based Accounting Systems

Two broad classes of systems:
batch systems real-time systems

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Batch Processing
A batch is a group of similar transactions that are accumulated over time and then processed together. The transactions must be independent of

order for batch processing to be appropriate. A time lag exists between the event and the processing.
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one another during the time period over which the transactions are accumulated in

Batch Processing/Sequential File

Sales Orders Keying Unedited Transactions catches clerical errors Errors correct errors and resubmit Edit Run Edited Transactions

Sort Run Transactions Old Master (father) AR

rearranges the transaction data by key field so that it is in the same sequence as the master file

Update Run
AR New Master (son)

changes the values in the master file to reflect the transactions that have occurred

Transactions (eventually transferred to an archive file)

Steps in Batch Processing/Sequential File

Keystroke - source documents are transcribed by clerks to magnetic tape for processing later Edit Run - identifies clerical errors in the batch and places them into an error file Sort Run - places the transaction file in the same order as the master file using a primary key Update Run - changes the value of appropriate fields in the master file to reflect the transaction Backup Procedure - the original master continues to exist and a new master file is created
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Advantages of Batch Processing

Organizations can increase efficiency by grouping large numbers of transactions into batches rather than processing each event separately. Batch processing provides control over the transaction process via control figures.

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Real-Time Systems
process transactions individually at the moment the economic event occurs have no time lag between the economic event and the processing generally require greater resources than batch processing since they require dedicated processing capacity; however, these cost differentials are decreasing oftentimes have longer systems development time
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Why Do So Many AISs Use Batch Processing?

Much of AIS processing is characterized by high-volume, independent transactions, such as recording cash receipts checks received in the mail or payroll. The processing of such highvolume checks can be done during an off-peak computer time, such as overnight.
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