Civil Engineering Department

College of Engineering
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

__________________________________ Highway Engineering 1 CIV 368

Lecture 1_ Geometric Design of Highways
Kwasi Agyeman Boakye ( kwasi.agyeman.boakye@gmail.com)

Overview of the Course ( CIV 368)

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Time Period * 2:30pm 4:30pm, break, 4:45pm 6:45pm, break, 7:00pm 9:00pm Days * Saturday, September,15th, 22nd, 29th, October, 6th ,13th , 20th Mode of Assessment * Coursework - 30%; Exams - 70% Recommended Reading oGhana Highway Authority, Road Design Guide, First Edition (1991). oA Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, AASHTO (2005) oTraffic and Highway Engineering, Garber N.J and Hoel A.L, Bill Stenquist (2002). oSurface Dressing Manual, Ministry of Transportation, Ghana, 2005

Purpose of Geometric Design

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Geometric design deals with the dimensioning of the elements of highways, such as vertical and horizontal curves, cross sections, truck climbing lanes, bicycle paths and parking facilities. It is done for the following purposes;

For optimum efficiency and maximum safety at reasonable cost.

For improvement of design standard at a later date.

Functional Classification of Highways I

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Highways are classified according to their functions in terms of the service they provide. The classification system facilities a system development of highways and the logical assignment of highway responsibilities among different jurisdictions. The ultimate reason for classification is to optimize benefit against cost. Functional Classification is often based on; -Volume of Traffic -Type of traffic -Purpose of road -Importance/ Priority Though road may be functionally classified the major element that are considered for the various classes are; -Expected speed -Long/short distance traffic -Access control -Traffic control at intersections -Parking, loading/unloading -Gradient,curves. 4

Functional Classification of Highways II

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Highways and streets are categorized as rural or urban roads, depending on the area in which they are located. This initial classification is necessary because urban and rural areas have significantly different characteristics with respect to the type of land use and population density which in turn influences travel pattern.
Urban Roads Expressways (Motorways) Arterial Streets Sub-arterial Streets Collector Streets Rural Roads National Highways State Highways (Regional Roads) District Roads Village Roads ( Feeder Roads)
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Local Streets

Classification of Roads Systems in Urban Areas

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Principal Arterial System: This system serves major activity centres of the urban area and consist of the highest-trafficvolume corridors. It carries a high proportion of the total vehiclekm of travel within the urban areas. All controlled access facilities are within this system. It can be subdivided into expressways, freeways etc. Urban Minor Arterial System: This consist of roads that interconnect with and augment the urban principal/primary arterials . They serve trips of moderate length and places emphasis on land access than principal arterials. Urban Collector System: Roads within this system are purposed to collect traffic from local streets in residential areas or in CBDs and convey it to the arterial system. They usually go through residential areas and facilitate traffic circulation within residential, commercial and industrial areas. Urban Local Street System: This system consist of all other streets within the urban area that are not included in the aforementioned systems. The purpose of these streets are to provide access to abutting land and to the collector systems.

What are the classifications for rural areas?......

Road Classification in Ghana

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In Ghana the road network is divided into three main categories based on their functions. These are namely trunk roads, urban roads and feeder roads. Trunk Roads are roads that connect regions, cities, district capitals and major centres of population. They also connect Ghana with neighboring countries. They often provide continuity of travel. Urban Roads are roads found within metropolitans, municipals and assemblies of urban areas which often provide access to residential, industrial and commercial facilities. Feeder Roads are roads that connect villages. They may also connect villages or farming centres to trunk roads.
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Trunk Road Classification in Ghana

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The Ministry of Roads and Transport (MRT) roads classification system divides the trunk roads into three main categories i.e. National roads, Inter Regional roads and Regional roads. National roads are to link the national capital and regional capitals. They are roads of strategic importance such as main arterial roads to neighbouring countries. They have the prefix Nand up to two digits such as N1, N11. Inter Regional Roads are defined as roads of interregional importance, thus they are to provide inter regional coherence. They are proposed to have a numbering system preceded with the Prefix IR and up to two digits, e.g. IR8, IR11. Regional Roads link District capitals to their respective Regional capitals, in addition to other nearest District capital and major industrial, trade or tourist centers. The proposed numbering system is a prefix R followed by up to three digits e.g. R124

Elements of Geometric Design

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Cross section elements: The principal elements of a highway cross-section consist of the travel lanes, shoulders, and medians (for multilane highways). Marginal elements include median and roadside barriers, kerbs, gutters, rails, sidewalks and side slopes Sight distance consideration: Sight distance could be (1) the sight distances needed for stopping, which are applicable on all highways; (2) the sight distances needed for the passing of overtaken vehicles, applicable only on two-lane highways; (3) the sight distances needed for decisions at complex locations; and (4) the criteria for measuring these sight distances for use in design. Horizontal alignment details: It consist of straight sections of the road (tangents) connected by curves. The curves are usually segments of circles, which have radii that will provide for a smooth flow of traffic. Vertical alignment details: It consist of straight sections known as grades (tangents) connected by vertical curves. Intersection elements: They facilitate the convenience, ease, and comfort of people traversing the intersection while enhancing the efficient movement of motor vehicles, buses, trucks, bicycles, and pedestrians. Intersection design should be fitted closely to the natural. Major considerations are number of intersecting legs, the topography, the character of the intersecting highways, the traffic volumes, patterns, and speeds, and the desired type of operation.
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Design Control and Criteria

Design Speed
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Design Speed serves as the basis for geometric design of roads and is directly related to alignment elements such as curves, radii, superelevation, sight distance etc. It is the selected speed to determine the various geometric features of a roadway. It depends on the functional classification of the highways, the topography of the area in which the highway is located and the land use of the adjacent area. The value should be consistent with the speed that motorist will expect to drive. The topography can be categorized as level (flat), rolling (hilly) or mountainous. Level terrains are relatively flat. Horizontal and vertical sight distances are generally long or can be achieved without much construction difficulty or major expense. Rolling terrain has natural slopes that often rise above and fall below the highway grade with occasional steep slopes that restrict the normal vertical alignment. Mountainous terrain has sudden changes in ground elevation in both the longitudinal and traverse directions, thereby requiring frequent hillside excavations to achieve acceptable horizontal and vertical alignments. 10

Design Control and Criteria

Design Speeds for Ghanaian roads
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The table provides design speeds for Ghanaian roads. The Absolute values indicate the barest minimum one can go due to existing roadway and environmental and cost constraints.
Road Type Motorway Primary (Arterials) Secondary (Collectors) Feeder Town or Residential (Local roads) Service road in towns Classification Flat Hilly Mountainous Flat Hilly Mountainous Flat Hilly Mountainous Flat Hilly Mountainous Freeway Dual carriageway Normal Flat Hilly Design Speed 120 100 80 100 80 60 80 60 50 60 50 40 80 60 50 40 Absolute Value 100 80 60 80 60 40 60 40 30 40 30 20 60 40 30
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Design Control and Criteria

Design Hourly Volume
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The design hourly volume is the projected hourly volume that is used for design. The volume is usually taken as a percentage of the expected ADT on the highway. It has been shown that the 30th highest hourly volume as a percentage of ADT varies only slightly from year to year, even when significant changes of ADT occur. When used it indicates the road will be over capacity 29 hours per year. And it will never operate greater than capacity but will often have redundancies. It is determined by applying between 8 -12 % to the ADT.

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Design Control and Criteria

Design Vehicle
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A design vehicle is often selected to represent all vehicles on the highway. Its weight, dimensions and operating characteristics are used to establish the design standards of the highway. Its characteristics may have influence on lane width, curve widening, sight distance, design of intersections etc. In Ghana there are may categories of vehicles as given by GHA but the broad categories are into Small vehicles, Large Vehicles and Trailer vehicles.

AASHTO have adopted several Design Vehicles with their own unique symbols and dimensions. It is only a few that are often used in design such as P, CITY-BUS and WB-15.
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Design Control and Criteria

Design Vehicle
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Design Vehicles may influence the following road characteristics.

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Design Control and Criteria

Environmental factors and others
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Aesthetic and Landscaping: Landscaping features such as ground cover plantings, bushes, and trees, in keeping with the character of the street and its environment should be provided for aesthetic and erosion-control purposes. Landscape designs should be arranged to permit a sufficiently wide, clear, and safe pedestrian walkway. However, care should be exercised to ensure that sight distances and clearance to obstruction guidelines are observed, especially at intersections. Air Pollution: Pollutants emitted from motor vehicles and their impact on land uses adjacent to highways are factors affecting the highway design process. As each vehicle travels along the highway, it emits pollutants into the atmosphere and transmits noise to the surrounding area. The highway designer should recognize these impacts and evaluate them in selecting appropriate transportation alternatives. Many factors affect the rate of pollutant emission from vehicles, including vehicle mix, vehicle speed, ambient air temperature, vehicle age distribution, and percentage of vehicles operating in a cold mode. Noise Pollution: The quality of noise varies with the number and operating conditions of the vehicles while the directionality and amplitude of the noise vary with highway design features. The highway designer should therefore be concerned with how highway location and design influence the vehicle noise perceived by persons residing or working nearby. The perceived noise level decreases as the distance to the highway from a residence or workplace increases. Local site consideration: This could vary from relocation of settlements, preservation of cultural heritage sites etc.
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Cross-sectional Elements
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Cross-sectional elements may include; carriageway, shoulders, roadway width, right of way, building lines, control lines, median, camber, side slope, lateral and vertical clearance, kerb, guardrail, side drain and other facilities.

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Cross-sectional Elements
Lane width
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Lane width of a roadway greatly influences the safety and comfort of driving. Lane widths of 2.7 to 3.65m are generally used, with a 3.65m lane predominant on most highways. Selection of lane widths may depend on design speed, lateral clearance required (obstructions) and functional classification of road. Where unequal-width lanes are used, locating the wider lane on the outside (right) provides more space for large vehicles that usually occupy that lane, provides more space for bicycles, and allows drivers to keep their vehicles at a greater distance from the right edge. Where a curb is used adjacent to only one edge, the wider lane should be placed adjacent to that curb. The basic design decision is the total roadway width, while the placement of stripes actually determines the lane widths. In GHA the desired lane widths against speeds are as shown.

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Cross-sectional Elements
Shoulders
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A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way that accommodates stopped vehicles, emergency use, and lateral support of subbase, base, and surface courses. In some cases, the shoulder can accommodate bicyclists. It varies in width from only 0.6m on minor rural roads where there is no surfacing, or the surfacing is applied over the entire roadbed, to approximately 3.6m on major roads where the entire shoulder may be stabilized or paved. The graded width of shoulder is that measured from the edge of the traveled way to the intersection of the shoulder slope and the foreslope planes. The usable width of shoulder is the actual width that can be used when a driver makes an emergency or parking stop. Where the side slope is 1V:4H or flatter, the usable width is the same as the graded width since the usual rounding 1.2 to 1.8 m wide at the shoulder break will not lessen its useful width appreciably.

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Cross-sectional Elements
Traffic Barriers
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Traffic barriers are used to prevent vehicles that leave the traveled way from hitting an object that has greater crash severity potential than the barrier itself. Because barriers are a source of crash potential themselves, their use should be carefully considered. Traffic barriers include both longitudinal barriers and crash cushions. The primary function of longitudinal barriers is to redirect errant vehicles. The primary function of crash cushions is to decelerate errant vehicles to a stop. Longitudinal barriers come in rigid, semi-rigid and flexible forms. Some examples include Road side barriers, median barriers and bridge rails. Roadside Barrier is a longitudinal system used to shield motorists from obstacles or slopes located along either side of a roadway. It may occasionally be used to protect pedestrians, bystanders, and cyclists from vehicular traffic. Elements which may warrant shielding by a roadside barrier include embankment obstacles, roadside obstacles, and sensitive areas such as playgrounds. Median Barrier is a longitudinal system used to minimize the possibility of an errant vehicle crossing into the path of traffic traveling in opposite directions. When traffic volumes are low and also when medians are quite wide , the probability of a vehicle crossing a median and colliding with a vehicle in the opposing direction is relatively low. They are recommended when there has been a history of cross-median collisions or, for new roadways, where an incidence of high crash rates of this type would be expected. Although cross-median collisions may be reduced by median barriers, total crash frequency will generally increase because the space available 19 for return-to-the-road maneuvers is decreased.

Cross-sectional Elements
Traffic Barriers
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Bridge Railings prevent vehicles, pedestrians, or cyclists from falling off the structure. Bridge railings are longitudinal traffic barriers that differ from other traffic barriers primarily in their foundations. These railings are a structural extension of a bridge while other traffic barriers are usually set in or on soil. The need for a traffic barrier rarely ends at the end of a bridge. Therefore, the bridge railing should be extended with a roadside barrier, which in turn should have a crash-worthy terminal. Crush Cushions Crash cushions are protective systems that prevent errant vehicles from impacting roadside obstacles by decelerating the vehicle to a safe stop when hit head-on or redirecting it away from the obstacle. A common application of a crash cushion is at the end of a bridge rail located in a gore area. Where site conditions permit, a crash cushion should also be considered as an alternative to a roadside barrier for shielding rigid objects such as bridge piers, overhead sign supports, abutments, and retaining-wall ends. Crash cushions may also be used to shield roadside and median barrier terminals. Find out about the following cross-sectional elements; planting zone, kerbs, borderlines, guard rails, camber, slopes etc.
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Sight Distance
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Criteria for Measurement: - Height of drivers eye above road surface (H) -Height of object above road surface (h) AASHTO ; H=1.08m, h = 0.6m Other jurisdictions; H=1.05, h = 0.26

The value of h as per AASHTO is dependent on; -Rationalization of size of object that may be encountered -Impact on construction cost: A height lesser than h=0.6 ( tailgate of passenger car) may increase construction cost substantially. -Drivers ability to perceive and react: At high speeds most drivers are limited in their ability to see small objects.
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Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance
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Factors influencing Stopping Sight Distance; -Perception Reaction time of driver - Speed of vehicle -Efficiency of breaks -Frictional resistance between road and tires or deceleration rate -Longitudinal gradient of road way Perception Reaction Time: It is the time taken from when object is seen to the instant breaks are applied effectively. It is influenced by; -Characteristics of driver -Characteristics of obstacle -Speed of vehicle -Distance between object and vehicle -Characteristics of vehicle

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Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance
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Speed of Vehicle The higher the speed, the higher the SSD Efficiency of Breaks 100% breaking efficiency is not desired Perception Reaction Time: It is the time taken from when object is seen to the instant breaks are applied effectively. It is influenced by; -Characteristics of driver -Characteristics of obstacle -Speed of vehicle -Distance between object and vehicle -Characteristics of vehicle

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Sight Distance
Calculation of Stopping Sight Distance
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SSD = Perception Reaction Distance + Braking Distance

Perception Reaction Distance = vt ( if v in m/sec) = 0.278Vt (if V in km/hr)

Braking Distance Distance covered by a vehicle to come to stop after application of brakes Work Done = Kinetic Energy Kinetic Energy = 1/2mv2 = Rv2/2g Work Done = Frictional force X Breaking Distance = F X L = fRL Equating Work done in stopping and kinetic energy; Rv2/2g = fRL Breaking Distance L = v2/2gf
where v = speed of vehicle (m/sec) g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/sec2 ) f = coefficient of friction (longitudinal) 24

Sight Distance
Calculation of Stopping Sight Distance
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If the speed of vehicle is expressed in Km/hr then L = V2/254f Hence; SSD = vt + v2/2gf = 0.278Vt + V2/254f (where v in m/sec) (where V in km/hr)

AASHTO emphasizes that approximately 90% of drivers decelerate at rates greater than 3.4m/sec2 . Such decelerations are within drivers capability to maintain steering control during breaking on wet surfaces. As such most braking systems and tyre-pavement friction levels are capable of providing a deceleration rate of at least 3.4m/sec2 . The usual coefficient of friction associated with this is 0.35. Hence; Breaking Distance = 0.039 V2/a (where f in V2/254f is replaced by a/9.81)
SSD = 0.278Vt + 0.039 V2/a (AASHTO)

V in Km/hr , a in m/sec2 , t in secs

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Sight Distance
Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance
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Work done = ( Rsin + fRcos) L or (RN +fR)L Kinetic Energy = 1/2mv2 = Rv2/2g Equating Work done with Kinetic Energy Rv2/2g = (RN +fR)L

Where

L is the breaking distance (m) v=speed of vehicle (m/sec) f = coefficient of friction ( longitudinal) g = acceleration due to gravity N = percentage of grade divided by 100.

If speed of vehicle is in km/hr

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Sight Distance
Effect of Grade on Stopping Sight Distance
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Under AASHTO conditions (where speed is in m/sec)

(where speed is in Km/hr)

Hence under AASHTO conditions, SSD with consideration for grade is given by; (where speed is in m/sec)

(where speed is in Km/hr)

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Sight Distance
Effect of Trucks on Stopping Sight Distance
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Recommended SSDs do not explicitly consider design for trucks. Trucks are larger and heavier units than passenger cars and therefore will need a longer stopping sight distance. However the higher position of seats allow drivers to see obstacles far ahead and as such balances out the longer SSD required. This is known as the balancing factor.

Hence separate SSD for trucks are not often used.

The only circumstance where more SSD is provided because of trucks is where horizontal sight restrictions occur at the end of long downgrades.

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Sight Distance
Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
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SSD may be inadequate where ; -Complex or instantaneous decisions occur -Information is difficult to perceive -Unexpected or unusual maneovres DSD is the distance needed for a driver to detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult-toperceive information source or condition in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered, recognize the condition or its potential threat, select an appropriate speed and path, and initiate and complete the maneuver safely and efficiently. Because decision sight distance offers drivers additional margin for error and affords them sufficient length to maneuver their vehicles at the same or reduced speed, rather than to just stop, its values are substantially greater than stopping sight distance. It is need where there are errors in information reception, decision making or control action at critical locations such as -Intersection and interchange locations (unexpected or unusual maneuvers) -Change in cross section such as toll plazas and lane drops, and areas of concentrated demand (visual noise from competing sources of information)
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Sight Distance
Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
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AASHTO recommends these values for DSD Avoidance Maneuver A : Stop on rural road Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed/path/direction change on rural road Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed/path/direction change on suburban road Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed/path/direction change on urban road

For Avoidance Maneuvers A and B: pre-maneuver time is increased and the breaking distance is added to the pre-maneuver component.
DSD = 0.278Vt + 0.039 V2/a (t = pre-maneuver time) For Avoidance Maneuvers C,D and E: Pre-maneuver time is increased and the breaking distance component is replaced with a maneuver distance based on maneuver times that increase with decreasing speed. DSD = 0.278Vt (t = total pre-maneuver time and maneuver time)
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Sight Distance
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
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It is the minimum sight distance that should be available to a driver for overtaking another vehicle safely. It is important on two-lane, two way (single carriageways) because restrictions for passing opportunities affect the level of service (LOS) as the Measures of Effectiveness (MoEs) used are percentage of time spent following and average travel speed.

Assumptions used in determination of OSD A single vehicle overtaking a single vehicle. Overtaken vehicle travels at uniform speed. Overtaking vehicle follows vehicle ahead for a short while. Overtaking vehicle then accelerates rapidly, pullout and occupies opposing lane, overtakes slower vehicle and returns to original lane. Vehicle from opposing direction travels at the same speed as overtaking vehicle Difference between the average speed of overtaking vehicle and the vehicle being overtaken is 15km/hr (AASHTO)
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Sight Distance
Estimating Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) - AASHTO
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It is the minimum sight distance that should be available to a driver for overtaking another vehicle safely.

d1 = distance traversed during perception reaction time and during initial acceleration to the point where the passing vehicle just enters the left lane. d2 = distance travelled during the time the passing vehicle is travelling in the left lane. d3 = distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at the end of the passing maneuver. d4 = distance moved by the opposing vehicle during 2/3 of the time the passing vehicle is in the left lane
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Sight Distance
Estimating Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) - AASHTO
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Calculation of d1

Speed Range (Km/h) 50-65 a t1 2.25 3.6 66-80 81-95 2.37 4.3 96-110

d1 = 0.278t1 (V - m + at1 ) 2
Where t1 = time of initial maneuver, sec a = average acceleration, km/h/sec V= average speed of passing vehicle, Km/h m= difference in passing and passed vehicle, km/h

Calculation of d2 d2 = 0.278Vt2 Where t2 = time of travel, sec. It is obtained from experimental observation Speed Range (Km/h) 50-65 66-80 81-95 96-110

t2

9.3

10.7
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Sight Distance
Estimating Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) - AASHTO
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Calculation of d3
Is often obtained by experimental observations and is given by;

Speed Range (Km/h) 50-65 66-80 81-95 96-110

d3 (m)

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75

Calculation of d4 d4 = 2 d 2 3 _______________________________________________________________ Hence OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

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Sight Distance
Effect of Grade on OSD
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Downgrades
-Overtaking vehicle can accelerate rapidly less time of overtaking -Overtaken vehicle can also accelerate easily racing contest situation

Upgrades
-More sight distance is required due to reduced acceleration of the overtaking vehicle and likely speeding up of opposing vehicle. - Compensation in the loss of speed of overtaken vehicle which is often a heavy truck

Generally adjustment to OSD due to grade is often not necessary.

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Sight Distance
Other Kinds of Sight Distance
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Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD) ISD is provided where the application of OSD is impracticable for economic reasons or otherwise. ISD = 2 x SSD ISD provides reasonable opportunity to drivers to overtake with caution. Headlight Sight Distance (HSD) This is the distance available by the illumination of headlights. In valley curves, during night travel design must ensure that the roadway ahead is illuminated by vehicle headlights for a sufficient length The minimum value of HSD provided is equal to SSD from safety consideration.

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