Basic

Electronic

Communications

Signal

A detectable physical quantity or impulse (as a voltage, or magnetic field strength) by which messages or information can be transmitted.
Two Kinds of Signals: 1. Digital - can take only discrete values 2. Analog - can take values within a continuous range.

Digital Signals
Periodic
amplitude

1 0

time

Non-periodic
amplitude

1 0

time

Periodic 2 1 0 -1 -2 amplitude

Analog Signals

Non-periodic amplitude 30 0 -30

A periodic signal s will have the same value as that of s at time t after a time interval T has elapsed.

Periodic Signals

S(t + T) = s(t) where - < t < +

(equation 1)

Three Characteristics of Periodic Signals

1. Amplitude - the instantaneous value of a signal in any

time. For electrical the unit is volts.

The common unit of frequency is repetitions per second or cycles per second or Hertz. 3. Phase - used to indicate a relative position and the unit used is the same as that for angles

2. Frequency - the number of repetitions per unit time.

A sinusoid with peak amplitude of 5 volts and frequency of 3 Hz

amplitude (volts)
6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6
0 0.5

time (sec)

1.0

1.5

2.0

Periodic signals y(t) and z(t) with amplitudes of 1, and a phase lag of /2. The function y(t) is said to be ahead by /2 over z(t).
amplitude (volts)

2 1 0

y(t)

z(t)

-1 /2 -2

time (sec)

Sinusoids
Time domain: y(t) = A sin (2 f t + ) where A = amplitude t = time (equation 2)

= phase
f = frequency = 2 /

Sinusoids
Frequency domain: g(t) = sin t + 1/3 sin 3 t + 1/5 sin 5 t where = carrier frequency t = time amplitude (volts)
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5

(equation 3)

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

time (sec)

Sinusoids
General Formula:

n=1

1 sin (2n - 1) t 2n - 1

(equation 4)

The sum of the three terms (equation 3) amplitude (volts)

1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

time (sec)

Plot of equation 3 extended to n = 8 amplitude (volts)

1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

time (sec)

Plot of eqution 3 having infinite terms. amplitude (volts)

1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

time (sec)

SIGNAL TRANSMISSION
I(t) ENCODER digital or analog data
I(t) MODULATOR digital or analog data

digital data

DECODER

O(t)

analog data

DEMODULATOR

O(t)

Block diagram for digital and analog signal transmission using the co-dec (encoder-decoder) for digital signals and the mo-dem (modulator-demodulator) for analog signals.

Encoding and Modulating Techniques

Digital data with digital signals Digital data with analog signals Analog data with digital signals Analog data with analog signals

Definitions
Data rate - the amount of data in bits per second that
is transmitted

Duration or length of a bit - the amount of time it takes

for the transmitter to emit a bit (1/data rate).

Modulation rate - the rate at which signal level is changed, expressed in units of baud.

Digital Data with Digital Signal

1) Non Return-to-Zero Level (NRZ-L) 0 = low 1 = high 2) Non Return-to-Zero Inverted (NRZ-I) 0 = no transmission at the beginning of interval 1 = has transition at the beginning of interval 3) Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) 0 = no line signal 1 = positive or negative level, with successive 1s alternated 4) Pseudoternary 0 = positive or negative level with successive 0s alternated 1 = no line signal

Digital Data with Digital Signal

5) Manchester 0 = transition from high to low at the center of an interval 1 = transition from low to high at the center of an interva 6) Differential Manchester 0 = transition at the beginning of an interval 1 = no transition at the beginning of an interval There is always a transition at the center of an interval

Digital signal encoding techniques

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 NRZ - L NRZI Bipolar - AMI

Pseudoternary
Manchester Differential Manchester

Digital Data with Analog Signal

Modulating Techniques Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Analog Modulation Techniques for Digital Data

0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 Digital data ASK

FSK

PSK

Amplitude Shift Keying

s(t) = xA cos (2 fc t + c )
where
A = amplitude x = digital data input fc = carrier frequency c = carrier phase If x = 0, s(t) = 0. If x = 1, s(t) = Acos (2fct + c) is called the carrier signal, the output sinusoid that is varied depending on the data to be sent. Thus, the binary digital data is represented with either the presence (binary 1) or absence of it (binary 0).

Frequency Shift Keying

xA cos (2 f1 t + c ) s(t) = xA cos (2 f2 t + c )
A = amplitude x = digital data input fc = carrier frequency f1 = fc + offset f2 = fc - offset c = carrier phase

binary 1 binary 0

where

Phase Shift Keying

A cos (2 fc t + ) s(t) = A cos (2 fc t ) binary 1 binary 0

where A = amplitude x = digital data input fc = carrier frequency f1 = fc + offset f2 = fc - offset c = carrier phase

If the reference of a phase shift is with respect to the previous transmitted bit, it is termed as differential PSK.

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

QPSK is another form of angle-modulated digital modulation. There are four output phases possible for a single carrier frequency with four different inputs, with 2 bits per input (dibit).

Phase Shift
450 1350 2250 3150

Digital Data
11 10 00 01

4-PSK Modulator
sin(ct + 1350) sin(ct + 450) 10 11

00 sin(ct + 2250)

01

sin(ct + 3150)
Constellation Diagram

Phasor Diagram

4-PSK Modulator
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

+1350

-450

+450

-1350

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

QAM is another technique of converting digital data into analog signals that vary (or shift) both phase and amplitude of the carrier signal.

Binary input
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Amplitude
0.765V 1.848V 0.765V 1.848V 0.765V 1.848V 0.765V 1.848V

Phase
-1350 -1350 -450 -450 +1350 +1350 +450 +450

8-QAM Modulator
cos ct 101 100 -sin ct 000 001 -cos ct 111 (1.848V) 101 111 100

110 (0.765V)
sin ct 010 011

110

000 001

010 011

Phasor Diagram

Constellation Diagram

Analog Data with Digital Signal

Coder - converts analog data into digitized form suitable for transmission Decoder - restores digital data into its analog form.data Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) - a modulation technique that uses codecs and follows the sampling theorem which requires that the analog signal be sampled at least twice the rate of the highest significant signal frequency. A PCM codec transfers n-bit signals where the MSB represents the sign bit. The remaining bits are used to indicate the magnitude . Quantizing - conversion of a given voltage to its equivalent binary code.

PCM Modulation
111 +3V 110 +2V 101 +1V 100/000 0V 001 -1V 010 -2V 011 -3V

Analog input data Sample pulse Quantized equivalent 111 010 101 PCM code

t1
111 +3V 110 +2V 101 +1V 100/000 0V 001 -1V 010 -2V 011 -3V

t2

t3

3 Stages required to convert analog signal to digital signal

1. Sampling- to take samples of the analog signal at discrete time interval.

2. Quantizing- is the rounding off of the sampled data to the nearest coded value. The coded values are called steps. The rounding off of values causes distortion, the more steps, the more accurate is the data.
3. Coding- translates the quantized values to binary code equivalent.

Analog Data with Analog Signals

Two main reasons why transmit analog data using analog signals 1. Data needs to be sent using high frequency 2. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) will be used.

Signal Degradation
Causes of signal degradation: Attenuation Capacitance Time delay and delay distortion Noise Attenuation - the measure of the decrease in signal strength at the receiving end due to electrical losses in the length of the conductor and in the dielectric medium. Capacitance - the measure of the electrical energy stored in the dielectric between separate conducting materials like wires.

Signal Degradation
Time Delay - is the time measurement it takes for the signal to reach a distance away from one end. The unit used is usually nanoseconds per foot meter.

Noise - is referred as an unwanted or undesired signal inserted into the transmitted signal. Types of Noise 1. Thermal noise - is due to thermal vibration of charge carriers in a conductor. It is a function of temperature and is equally distributed in the frequency spectrum and cannot be eliminated. 2. Intermodulation noise - arises when the transmission medium is used to carry different signals at different frequencies.

Signal Degradation
3. Crosstalk - comes from another wire. A changing signal or current on a wire produces a magnetic field around it. If there is no conductor carrying the same current but in opposite direction, there will be no second magnetic field to oppose or cancel the original. A changing magnetic field can induce current in another wire, thus resulting in crosstalk. This noise can be minimized if you provide a tight coupling between a pair of wires by twisting them with each other. 4. Impulse noise - a non-continuous, irregular pulse or spike which usually comes in high amplitude but short duration. An example of this is the spike due to an electromagnetic disturbance like lightning or when turning on/off a motor.

Signal Degradation
Transmitted signal

Attenuation

Capacitance

Propagation delay

Impulse noise

Long Distance Communication:

Modulation and Demodulation

Carrier Waves: a continuous, oscillating signal propagate farther. used in telephone, radio and TV (though they transfer different things).

The carrier oscillates continuously, even when no data is being sent.

How to encode data into the carrier wave By modulating (modifying) the carrier slightly, Wave go across the medium Demodulated (decoded) at the receiving destination. It is all about representation of information using 1 or 0 in an efficient way over a medium while allowing both parties involved to understand each other.

Types of Modulation: 3 Basic Types

Amplitude Modulation. (AM radio stations)
Varies the strength of the outgoing signal in proportion to the information being sent.

Frequency Modulation
(FM radio stations)
Varies the frequency of the underlying carrier in proportion to the information being sent . (a) AM (b) FM

Phase shift modulation

AM and FM encode on bit in one cycle. Phase shift modulation encodes more by changing the timing of the carrier wave abruptly. Each change is called a phase shift. Hardware can measure the amount of shift in a wave The number of bits transferred per second is a multiple of the baud rate.

Arrows: where the carrier abruptly jumps to a new point in the cycle.

Modems (used to encode and decode)

Modems (abbreviation of modulator and demodulator)
modulator: encode data and modify wave. demodulator: receive modified wave and decode into data.

full duplex communication-

Modem can be used with any media such as radio, telephone line (dial up modem).

Carrier Frequencies and Multiplexing

Two more signals using different carrier frequencies can be transmitted over a single medium simultaneously without interference.

Like TV channel. Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

Use multiple carrier frequencies for independent signals. Practical for broadband (high-bandwidth) transmission systems.

Wave Division Multiplexing

Used for optical transmission. For fiber optics, different frequencies correspond to different colors of the light spectrum.
Optical FDM = Wave Division Multiplexing=Color Division Multiplexing

Time Division Multiplexing.

Divides time into segments or "buckets and allow sources transmit in turn. Synchronous (slotted) time Division Multiplexing (STDM): bucket size are the same for each sources. Suitable to telephone voice. Statistical Multiplexing: bucket size varies according to the usage of each sources. No data, no basket assigned.

CODES
Data communication codes are prescribed bit sequences used for encoding characters and symbols. They are often called character sets, character codes, symbol codes, or character languages.
In essence, there are only 3 types of characters used in data communication codes, namely:

1. Data link control characters - used to facilitate the

orderly flow of data from a source to a destination

2. Graphic control -involve the syntax or presentation of

the data at the receive terminal

3. Alpha/numeric characters - used to represent the various

symbols used for letters, numbers, and punctuation in the English language

The 3 most common character set used for character encoding 1. Baudot code - sometimes called Telex code. First fixed length character code. It is a 5 bit character code. Used letter shift (11011) and figure shift (11111). Ex. A = 11000, - = 11000 Question? How can the other end know that its A or that Im sending?

ASCII Code - is a 7-bit character. When parity is used, it become 8 bit but the 8th bit represent the parity bit.
Parity bit- a single bit added to each character to force the total number of 1s in the character, including the parity bit to be either an odd number or an even number.

Two types of parity 1. ODD parity 2. EVEN parity Ex1. ASCII-77 code - ODD parity

A = 11000001

Note: rightmost bit is bit 0 and leftmost bit is bit 7 EX2. Det. the value of Po (odd parity) and Pe (even parity) of the ff: ASCII characters: Po 1. 0000000 2. 1101000 3. 1111111 4. R 5. q 1 ? ? ? ? Pe 0 ? ? ? ?

3. EBCDIC code - an 8-bit character code developed by IBM and used extensively in IBM and IBM-compatible equipment.

Ex. What is the EBCDIC code of A? Ans. 11000001 Note: right most bit is bit 7 and leftmost bit is bit 0