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FLOWERING PLANTS AND CIVILIZATION Part 1

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Outline of Flowering Plants and Civilization
Domestication of crop plants Most important plant families Monocots: Arecaceae Araceae Liliaceae Orchidaceae Zingiberaceae Dicots: Acanthaceae Apiaceae Asteraceae Convolvulaceae Euphorbiaceae Fabaceae Malvaceae Rosaceae Solanaceae Verbenaceae

Cyperaceae Poaceae

Apocynaceae Cucurbitaceae Lamiaceae Rubiaceae

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Components for Plants and Civilization Horticulture is the science or art of cultivating fruits, vegetables, flowers, or ornamental plants Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with heredity, especially the mechanisms of hereditary transmission and the variation of inherited characteristics among similar or related organisms Taxonomy is the classification and naming of organisms in an ordered system that indicates natural relationships Ethnobotany is the study of how plants are used in various cultures, particularly in the developing world (people in the industrial world mostly by their plant products rather than glowing or gathering them)

Plants are the basis of nearly all food and other materials (other than minerals) used in the modern world Originally ancient cultures simply gathered plant material from the wild and used in as early cultures developed as hunter-gatherers As the plant an animal resources became depleted by increasing population, cultures began to settle down and grow many of the plants they needed, i.e., to become farmers Ancient farmers selected seeds or vegetative propagules from the more fruitful or better adapted individuals, which slowly lead to better yields After thousands of years of purposeful (rather than natural) selection, the cultivated plants differed appreciably from their wild relatives Plant geographers now recognize six world regions where domestication of crops is believed to have taken place

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Six Regions of Crop Domestication
Near East Regionwheat, barley, peas, asparagus, beets, carrots, turnips, olives, cherries, plums, apples, pears, onions, garlic, cabbage, broccoli, lettuce parsley, opium poppy Chinese regionpeach, litchi, ginger, tea, soybean, and cucumber Africayams, okra, sweet melons, coffee South Asia and Oceaniarice, taro, breadfruit, banana, coconut, sugar cane, mango, citrus, nutmeg, turmeric, pepper, and eggplant North AmericaSunflower and tobacco South and Central Americacorn, peanut, potato, cassava, beans, cashew, pineapple, papaya, avocado, chili pepper, tomato, cotton, cacao, guava, sweet potato, pumpkin, squash, rubber, and vanilla

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Plants organized into families based on evolutionary relationships Over 300 families of angiosperms are recognized Names & circumscription are changing with new DNA evidence, that separates homologous from analogous characters All angiosperm families have their family name ending in ceae, Orders in ales, but are not commonly used Families can be recognized on the basis of chemical, genetic, and morphological similarity Some related families produce organic compounds that can be used to distinguish them from other families

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Easiest way to determine plant families are morphological Flowers are the most important part of species identification Androeciumnumber and condition (free or fused) of stamens *Malvaceae has monadelphous stamens *Fabaceae (Papillionoideae) has diadelphous stamens *Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) has six stamens with four petals *Melastomaceae often has geniculate stamens

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Gynoeciumposition of ovary, number of carpels, number of seeds, number of locules, and placentation are important *Apocarpous ovaries belong to primitive families *Free central placentation characteristic of the Caryophyllales *Parietal placentation is uncommon, but is found in papaya and passion fruit Counting seeds and locules can eliminate many families Distinctive characters, such as the gynophore in Capparaceae Whether the ovary is inferior or superior is important

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The number of petals and if they are fused together or not are important diagnostic characters Many petals are found in primitive families, 4 or 5 in advanced families Free petals are more often found in primitive families, fused petals more often in advanced families Whether a corolla is actinomorphic or zygomorphic is important Many Ranunculaceae corollas have spurs for storing nectar

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Leaves less commonly used to recognized families and species, but some are useful Opposite vs. alternate, and compound vs. simple are diagnostic, since some families have only alternate, some only opposite, and some only simple and others only compound Sap is often important, especially if it is milky (latex) Only 20 families have milky sap, some partially, some entirely

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Plant Families Most Important for Plant Domestication
Poaceae Arecaceae Orchidaceae Rosaceae Malvaceae Solanaceae Verbenaceae Rubiaceae Monocots Cyperaceae Liliaceae Dicots Fabaceae Apiaceae Convolvulaceae Lamiaceae Asteraceae Araceae Zingiberaceae

Euphorbiaceae Cucurbitaceae Apocynaceae Acanthaceae

Poaceae (a.k.a., Gramineae, Grass Family) Comprises 9,000 to 10,000 species of grasses found throughout the tropics and even up into the tundra They form the dominant part of the grassland biome, which covers perhaps 20% of the earths surface Perhaps 32 indigenous species in Fiji, and up to 100 weedy grasses

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The stems are round and often hollow, unlike sedges that typically have solid, 3-angled stems Flowers are arranged in spikelets bearing overlapping bracts They are wind pollinated and lack colorful petals (apetalous) The fruit is a caryopsis, a one-seeded indehiscent fruit with the seed fused to the ovary wall

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They provide the majority of the food eaten by humans, directly with cereal crops, and indirectly by forage for cattle and other domesticated animals eaten by humans Food crops include wheat, corn (maize), barley, oats, rye, and sugar cane, as well as the very useful bamboo Jobs tears (Coix lacryma-jobi) seeds (fruits actually) are used to make Polynesian and Melanesian necklaces

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Cyperaceae (Sedge Family) Comprises about 4000 species of sedges found throughout the world, mostly in the tropics but many species also in the tundra Distinguished from grasses by solid, usually 3-angled stems (sedges have edges) Most tend to be associated with wet and/or poor soil (they sometimes dominate marshes) About 24 species native to Fiji, and nearly as many weeds

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Mostly lanceolate leaves borne on a closed sheath, and often with leaf-like bracts below the inflorescence Green, apetalous flowers are surrounded by bracts and arranged in spikelets Florets are mostly wind pollinated with a superior ovary bearing 2 or 3 stigma lobes Fruit is a caryopsis containing a single, usually 3-angled seed

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Economic species include water chestnut, kutu (Eleocharis dulcis), and papyrus (Cyperus papyriferus) Papyrus used by the ancient Egyptians to make paper Kutu used by Fijians and western Polynesians to make kuta mats

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Araceae (Arum Family) Comprises about 3,700 herbaceous species of plants known as aroids, mostly herbs but some of them vines (trunk climbers) Found mostly in the tropics, but many also temperate Many are cultivated for food and as ornamentals

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Stemless herbs with large, alternate leaves, and often forming large tubers or corms Commonly having oxalate crystals and milky sap Flowers usually tiny, apetalous, and unisexual, arranged on a fleshy spike called a spadix, which is usually surrounded by a sheath called spathe

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Many species of aroids are cultivated as ornamentals, some for their foliage, some for their showy spathes

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Some native species are vines, including the two native species found in Fiji, Epipremnum pinnatum (shown here) and Rhapidophora spuria In Tonga, the roots of the former species are used to make baskets called katoalu One species, water cabbage, is a weed in Fiji

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Araceae (a.k.a. Palmae, Palm Family) Comprises about 2,600 to 3,000 species of woody monocots found in the tropics, subtropics, and warm temperate areas of the world A few, such as rattans, grow as vines Only about 130 palms found outside the tropics, and farthest north and south are found at 44 N and 44 S

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All easily recognized by large, evergreen compound leaves, either pinnate or palmate, on top of the woody stem Flowers either unisexual or bisexual, and usually arranged in dense panicles Tepals 6, often both whorls petaloid, and 6 stamens Ovary 3-celled, superior, and usually forming a drupe fruit

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The largest seed (up to 30 kg) in the world belongs the coco de mer of Mauritius, and the largest leaves (25 m) to another palm (Raphia sp.) There are about 22 native species of palms in Fiji Numerous palms used as ornamentals

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Important economic products include the following: Dates from date palms (Phoenix dactylifera), which are grown commercially in deserts (and in cities as an ornamental) Coconuts (Cocos nucifera) for their edible seed, and many other coconut products made from all parts of the palm

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Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) for cooking oil is a major crop being grown in the tropics, and is a major cause of displacement of tropical rainforest Palm hearts (Euterpe spp.) from the stem tips of several species of this genus; they are used in salads and cooking

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Sago starch is obtained from the trunk of a felled sago palm (Metroxylon sagu and other species) Rattans (various species), which are climbing palms, are used for furniture and basketry

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Betel nut (Areca catechu) as a stimulating drug Widespread in Indo-Malaya, SE Asia, and Micronesia Betel nut is powdered with crushed limestone and wrapped in the leaf of a Piper sp. before it is chewed It gives that wonderful betel nut smile

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Liliaceae (Lily Family) Comprises about 4,000 species of herbaceous species, many growing from bulbs or rhizomes, mostly in temperate areas A catch-all family with many species originally included that have now been put into different families Most important commercial use is as ornamentals, with numerous species being in the ornamental plant trade Many are poisonous, but some, e.g., garlic and onion, are edible Often combined with Amaryllidaceae

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Leaves alternate or less often opposite or whorled Flowers often showy and nearly always bisexual and actinomorphic Perianth typically consists of two whorls of 6 undifferentiated or weakly differentiated petaloid tepals Androecium usually consists of 6 fertile stamens Gynoecium typically consists of a single 3-carpellate pistil of 3 Fruit is nearly always a capsule or berry

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Two species of lilies are native to Fiji Collospermum montanum, which is an epiphyte common in montane areas Dianella intermedia, which is a terrestrial herb

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Zingiberaceae (Ginger Family) Comprises about 1000 herbaceous species with creeping or horizontal rhizomes, found mostly in the tropics. The spiral gingers are sometimes put into the family Costaceae Main commercial use as ornamentals, but a few are used in cooking (turmeric and ginger) Six species of ginger are native in Fiji

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Leaves alternate and distichous with a sheathing base Flowers bisexual, strongly zygomorphic, often borne in a spike or raceme with conspicuous floral bracts Perianth a 3-lobed or spathaceous tubular calyx and a petaloid tubular corolla with 3 lobes Androecium of a single fertile stamen, with a large petaloid labellum representing 2 connate staminodes Gynoecium of a single compound pistil of 3 carpels Fruit a capsule or berry-like

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Orchidaceae (Orchid Family) The largest family of angiosperms, over 25,000 described species found mostly in the tropics, but also into temperate regions Very specialized methods of pollination, often with only one pollinator Important epiphytes in tropical rainforests, and thousands of species used in hybridization for making new cultivars Fiji has 164 native species, Samoa 100, but Hawaii has only 3 Vanilla is an orchid with a use other than as an ornamental

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Most native species are epiphytes, but many are terrestrial Leaves alternate, parallel veined (as most monocots) Zygomorphic flowers with one petal called the labellum that is modified into a landing platform Stamens and pistil fused together to form a column Pollen in a two packets called pollinia that are carried intact by insects during pollination Capsule contains thousands of tiny seeds

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Rosaceae (Rose Family) Comprises about 3,000 to 4,000 species Leaves are always alternate, usually simple but sometimes compound, often with toothed margins Stamens usually many, petals free and sometimes many The ovary is often half-inferior (perigynous) The family is very small in Oceania, with only one species native to Fiji (Rubus moluccanus)

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It comprises many edible fruits, such as strawberries, blackberries, pears, apples, plum, peaches, cherries, apricots, and almonds Also many important ornamentals, particularly roses, of which hundreds of cultivars have been named

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Fabaceae (Pea Family) The third largest family of angiosperms with ca. 13,000 species Formerly called Leguminosae Sometimes divided into three families, but more often subfamilies MimosoideaeUsually with conspicuous stamens and small petals CaesalpinoideaeUsually with 5 or 10 stamens and 5 showy petals Papillionoideaewith butterfly flowers and diadelphous stamens

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They comprise trees, herbs, shrubs, and vines Alternate leaves, and these may be simple, pinnately compound, or trifoliate (3-leaflets) The butterfly flower is the most diagnostic characteristic (of the subfamily Papillionoideae) Nearly all of them have a legume fruit

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The comprise numerous ornamental, native, weedy, and commercial crop species Important food crops include peas, beans (kidney, lima, string, winged, etc.), peanuts, lentils

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Also fodder plants, such as mesquite and alfalfa, since they are high in nitrates (root nodules!) Many important timber species, including vesi Also some chemicals, such as fish poisons (derris)

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Euphorbiaceae (Spurge Family) Comprises about 4,000 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees found throughout the world, but mostly tropical Many species are used as ornamentals, particularly succulent spurges found in Asia and Africa Many species, particularly the genus Euphorbia, have milky sap, which can serve to distinguish the succulent ones from cacti About 66 species in 21 genera are native to Fiji

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Leaves opposite or alternate, simple, often with white latex sap Flowers often reduced to inflorescences called cyathia (found only in this family) with a cup-shaped involucre bearing apetalous, unisexual flowers (reduced to stamens) lacking a perianth and a female flower Ovary usually a 3-lobed, 3-celled, and the fruit a drupe or schizocarp

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The most economically important species are rubber (Hevea brasiliensis ), castor bean (Ricinus communis), and cassava (Manihot esculenta) Some species are poisonous (e.g., castor bean with deadly ricin) Includes numerous weedy species and ornamentals

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Malvaceae (Mallow Family) Comprises about 1500 species of the tropics to temperate areas Trees, shrubs, and herbs, with four native species in Fiji Includes many ornamental species, including several species and numerous, variously colored cultivars of hibiscus, one of which is an ancient introduction to Fiji

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Usually have stellate hairs and mucilaginous sap Leaves always alternate, simple, often palmately veined and/or lobed Flowers have five free petals, often colorful and conspicuous Gynoecium with a superior, several celled ovary Stamens usually united (monadelphous) Fruit usually a several-celled capsule or schizocarp

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The family includes four native species, three of them widespread treesmilo (mulomulo), beach hibiscus (vau), and native cotton It also includes species of weeds, a few of them of ancient introduction to Fiji

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