Professional Documents
Culture Documents
tr/~csutcu
that is perceived by another. Knowledge, feelings or thoughts are enclosed and sent from at least one person and received and decoded by another. Meaning is given to this message as the receiver interprets the message. A connection is made between the people communicating.
22
communication requires effective skills suited to the form of communication used to send the message. Communication is classified into three forms:
1.
2. 3.
33
2.
3. 4.
44
situations for different reasons, with the potential for many interpretations. It has seven main elements:
Sender Message Receiver Feedback Channel Context or setting Noise or interference
often passes unnoticed, while poor commuication is obvious. The compete message and its meaning are distorted and interrupted.
Inappropriate choice of word Inappropriate channel Receiver inattention Lack of courtesy by the sender or the receiver Nonverbal communication that does not support the words Different cultural backgrounds Poor layout and presentation Inappropriate timing nadequate feedback
66
effective and relevant, timely and appropriate information has to be obtained and communicated throughout the organization. The successful organization is the one that has effective communication both within the organization and with other companies and clients. In fact, information flow is crucial to any organization and the better the flow the more successful the company or organization. Being an effective communicator means being honest with yourself and others; it meanshaving the ability to say what you want or feel, but not at the expense of others. It is not about getting your own way and winning every time. Nor is it a means to manipulate and manage other people so that you achieve your aim while appearing to be considering others. An effective communicatior avoids a series of quick-fix tricks or techniques.
77
the workplace. Effective communication establishes a connection between two or more people and leads to understanding. It allows individuals to be more effective at work and in their relationship with others. As well as allowing individuals to interact to satisfy their own needs and to develop their personal, social and work relationships, effective communication also enables leaders and managers to control work procedures motivate others and balance the needs and goals of individuals and the organization.
88
same country but from different cultural backgrounds. Over time, a culture develops distinctive national patterns of communication and social behavior. These patterns are the customs and the conventions regarded as the characteristics of a particular culture. They affect way people communicate and act as individuals or in groups. What information we take in, which part of the message we choose to remember and which response we give are all a result of our perception. Effective communicators acknowledge differences in perception. They also use communication strategies that avoid the communication barriers caused by the ineffective intercultural communication strategies.
99
message that is not encoded in words. The nonverbal part of the message tends to be less conscious and reveals the senders feelings, likings and preferences more spontaneously and honestly than the verbal part. There are four types of nonverbal messages:
Personal (to the individual) Common to a group of people or culture Universal (to humankind) Unrelated to the message (random)
10 10
communicate nonverbally with the body movement and with personal relationship behaviors. This nonverbal communication modifies, changes or complements the verbal communication. Nonverbal communication always exists in a context, or framework. The context often determines the meaning of the nonverbal behavior.
11 11
main areas:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
Body movement or kinesics Physical characteristics Touching behavior Vocal qualities, or paralanguage Use of space, or proximity Artefacts (e.g. Parfume, clothes, lipstick, glasses and hairpieces project the style or mood of the wearer.) Environment
12 12
13 13
doubt about the meaning of nonverbal behavior, check it out with the person sending the message raher than make assumptions or pass judgement. The total message is understood more easily when you follow the four-step process below.
Hear the words. See the nonverbal behavior. Check out their meaning with the sender when the verbal and
communication
14 14
purposes in this process. 1. As the sender of the message, listening to your receivers answers provides feedback on how the other person has interpreted your message. 2. As the receiver of the message, listening to the information from the other person allows you to understand the meaning.
15 15
Attending listening to focus on the speaker 2. Encourage listening to invite the speaker to continue 3. Reflecting listening to mirror the feelings and content in the message 4. Active listening to show empathy with the speaker
1.
16 16
on the speaker by giving your physical attention to the other person. You use your whole body and the environment you create to provide feedback that assures the speaker of your total attention.
17 17
movement, personal space, environment, avoid distractions. 2. Invite the speaker to continue: Invitation to disclose, minimal and brief responses, pause, use encouraging questions. 3. Mirror the content and feelings in the message: Paraphrasing, reflecting statements, clarifying, summarizing. 4. Show empathy with the speaker: Active participation, feedback.
18 18
appearance of the speaker. 3. A desire to change rather than accept the speaker. 4. A tendency to make early conclusions or to listen only for the pause when the speaker can be interrupted. The intrusion of the listeners own values or attitudes. 5. A willingness in the listener to hear only that part of the message they agree with. 6. A perception by the listener that the speaker lack credibility.
19 19
way people feel about each other. 1. Empathy: is the ability to understand and feel as the other person feels. 2. Win-win approach: is concentrating on the needs and interests of other people communicating. 3. Self-disclosure: involves showing how you react and feel about the present situationand giving any information about the past that affects this reaction; in this way you allow others to know more about you.
20 20
Effective interpersonal communication techniques: Expressing openness Showing empathy Use supportiveness Demonstrate equality Use I messages Listen Provide appropriate feedback (feedback is the receivers response to a senders message) Use appropriate self-disclosure Communicate assertively
21 21
of instructions 1. Direct instructions are to the point and indicate who, what, when, where and how a task will be completed. 2. Conditional insitructions explain the objectives, provide background information and describe the intended outcome.
22 22
outcome. Give reasons for doing the job. Use concrete action words rather than abstract words. Have the other person paraphrase the instruction back to you. Demonstrate the skills in the task if your instructions involve machinery or equipment. Encourage questions. Ensure your timing is appropriate. Follow up as the person does the task on the job. Offer timely and specific feedback.
23 23
simple guides: 1. Listen carefully. 2. Focus on the person giving the instructions. 3. Avoid thinking about something else or daydreaming. 4. Avoid jumping to conclusions. 5. Ask questions about the standards to be reached. 6. Paraphrase to check your understanding. 7. Double any safety issues. 8. Ask for help if you feel you do not understand or are unable to follow the instructions. 9. Ask general questions.
24 24
sides; the interviewer and the interviewee. An interview is essentially an exchange of information What distinguishes it from a casual conversation, which is also an exchange of information, is that an interview:
Is planned Is prearranged Is structured Is controlled by the interviewer (it means knowing how to motivate the interviewee to reply fully to questions) Has a predetermined purpose Takes place between two or more people of different status
25 25
number of reasons. Their structure, however, will generally include five stages. The pre-interview stage The opening of the interview (p.35) The body of an interview (p.36) The close (p.37) The post-interview (p.38)
26
you want to attract and choose the best applicant for the position. Gather information from interviewees to help predict their future performance Inform applicants about the job and the organization Determine applicants ability to work with others and fit into the organizational culture
28
Poor planning Too much attention to negative or irrelevant information Lack of objectives Lack of structure Little knowledge of the job under discussion Judging the applicant inappropriate criteria Poor listening, which results in the interviewer hearing only part of the interviewees answer
29
the tasks performed on the job and the activities, skills and personal attributes necessary to carry out the job. Create a job specification or description if one does not exist. The job specification is the basis for the essential and desirable quantities listed in the adviertisement as well as the basis for your questions in the interview. Determine the style and the structure of the interview. Directive interviews are controlled and organized by the interviewer. Non-directive interviews involve the participants and the organization in setting the goals and process of the interview. Employment interviews are usually directive interviews.
30
questions that ask about the interviewees qualifications, previous job experience, carrier ambitions, goals, and attitudes towards the organizations products or policies. Aim to create clear, specific questions that will adequately establish the applicants capacity to meet the demands of the job. Questions should also be relevant, unambigous and free from bias, so that no one particular group in society is favoured or others disadvantaged.
31
interviews.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Open questions: Encourage interviewees to speak freely and talk about themselves, while the interviewer listens, observes and makes notes. Closed questions: These type of questions are designed to limit interviewees responses and to establish familiar facts such as their address, previous place of employment or qualifications. Mirror questions: These type of questions restate the interviewees previous answers and invite them to add further information. Probing questions: These type of questions follow on from the last response of the interviewee. They are spontaneous rather than planned. 32
applications for a position than the number of applicants you are willing to interview. Therefore, you prepare a short list and interview only those who best suit the position. Each application is assessed for suitability. This cull, or sorting, of applications into two gropus those to be called for an interview and those not to be interviewed is made by comparing the information in the applications against the essential and desirable qualifications for the position.
33
content of the interview you are ready to conduct the interview. Non-directive techniques use minimal questions, creating a conversational rather than an interrogatory tone, and adoptpositive nonverbal cues such as pauses and head nods to encourage the applicant. Directive techniques include open-ended questions and specific probing questions to focus on a particular topic and gain further information or clarification.
34
by name and jpb designation. Show the interviewee to a chair and perhaps offer refreshments. Some interviewers like to talk about topics of general interest such as local events or sport to make the applicant feel at ease; however take care not to side-track too far from the interviews purpose. State the interviews purpose and intended result. Be specific and avoid generalities. Let the interviewee know if you intend to take notes and explain the length of time alotted to the interview.
35
education and personal details. Throughout the interview, your purpose is twofold: to obtain specific information from the applicant and to achieve an interview process that is comfortable for the applicant. So take notes to jog your memory. Some interviewee responses may be inadequate, irrelevant, poorly organized or inaccurate. Listen carefully and with empathy. On occasion, you may need to vary the type of question, to clarify information or to allow the applicant to elaborate. As an interviewer it is your resposibility to give applicants accurate job information, to answer their questions and to allow scope to discuss their abilities.
36
place during the interview to avoid any misunderstandings or communication barriers. At the end of the interview, indicate any further action that needs to be completed. Indicate clearly that the interview is over and thank applicants for their application and for attending the interview.
37
documents presented at the interview. Record or complete notes on all important points immediately after the interview. You are trying to form an objective opinion based on the information provided by the interviewee and any other information available. At this stage interview evaluation sheets or rating scales are very helpful.
38
organization as part of the problem-solving and decision-making process.Their aim is to obtain needed information and collect it in a form that can be analyzed and processed or order the information in a way that makes it easy to analyze. Persuasive interviews: They aim to establish that a particular course of action or a new idea or change is acceptable. Plan the persuasive interview by knowing what you want to change or accomplish. Identify you objectives. They aim to influence the interviewee to change their attitude or bring them aroun a particular point of view.
39
Performance interviews: They seek to evaluate the employers performance and provide feedback on the organizations perception of the employers performance. The performance interview is often used for a promotion assessment. Plans to take action to change the behavior. Plan the interview carefully and choose a place free from interruptions. Discipline or reprimand (knama-azarlama) interviews: They aim to discuss unacceptable or undesirable behavior and to discuss plans to take action to change the behavior. Listen to the employee to determine reasons for the behavior. Deal with the facts rather than emplyees personal characteristics. This technique helps to reduce emotional reaction and defensiveness.
40
Counseling (t) interviews: They aim to provide support for employees dealing with issues and problems to help them solve the problem. Conseling interviews may also deal with issues that affect work performance. It is important in a conseling interview to remain non-evaluative, to use a range of questions and to develop active and reflective listening skills. They should be conducted privately, and confidentiality should be respected. They aim to help the employee clarify the problem and assist the employee to select the solution that most suits their needs.
41
selection interview is to choose the best person for the job. By removing these mistakes from interviews an interviewer is able to choose the best person more effectively. Some mistakes are:
Rely on first impressions Rating towards the average Relying on overall impression to give the halo effect. (The halo effect
describes a decision made on an overall impression based on general characteristics, rather than the specific criteria for the job. )
try to resolve differences, solve problems and reach aggreement. Effective negotiation meets as many interests as possible in an agreement that is durable. Negotiation strategies: Although negotiation has a specific aim to reach agreement not all negotiation achieves this aim.
1. 2. 3. 4.
parties are satisfied with the settlement negotiated. It is a process that seeks to meet the needs of both parties. Win-lose strategy: This gives a situation in which one party is satisfied and one is dissatisfied. The focus is on the partys problem to the exclusion of the others, until one side gives in or is defeated. People who adopt this strategy often use a confusing presentation or a dominant speaking style and body movement.
44
party is dissatisfied and the other is satisfied. In an extreme case, win-lose style of negotiation and the lose-win style of negotiation can lead to a deadlock followed by the lose-lose situation. Lose-lose strategy: This results from a situation in which the objectives of both parties are too rigid, or when both parties are unable to collaborate, or unaware of the opportunity to do so. When agreement cannot be reached, a third party may mediate to help the parties reach their own solution.
45
6.
7. 8.
Fear of being taken for a ride Waiting to be liked Guilt about wanting to be assertive Need to be nice Feeling intimidated by so-called powerful people Fear of conflict or confrontation Fear of losing face with the boss or colleagues Lack of self-confidence
46
5.
Plan: Create a set of clear objectives to steer you in the right direction to achieve the results you want. Discuss: Identify areas of agreement and try to establish some rapport with the other party. Purpose: Define the issues at a time. Attempt to stay with the issue rather than generalizing into other situations. Negotiate the issue: Start by asking for what you want, but accept that your goals may have to be modified. Link compromises to other objectives. Check: Ceck the agreement that you have just concluded and confirm that each party is committed to the agreement.
47
bargaining. To implement it you need to; State your case clearly and persuasively Organize your facts well Be aware of the timing and speed of the talks Access the othersneeds properly Have patience Not be unduly worried by conflict Be committed to a win-win philosophy
48
Agreement. If agreement cannot be achieved by negotiation, the alternative action to be taken is identified in the BATNA. WATNA stands for the Worst Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement. If the person you are negotiating with is your manager or supervisor you may have to think about WATNA. Becasue the other person has the legitimate power, or because because you want the relationship to continue as it is, you may decide on less than your preferred outcome.
49
Problem solving by negotiating: It is necessary that the relationship is important to both parties and there is a genuine desire to solve the problem rather than to win.
1.
2.
3. 4.
5.
6.
Select best time Define needs Brainstorm solutions Evaluate solutions Choose solutions Implement solutions
50
may use different negotiation styles or options. A skillfull negotiator is able to identify each of the five options and recognize the style being used by other party.
1. Compromise: the settlement of differences through concessions by one
2.
3. 4.
5.
or both parties. Collaboration: it results when people cooperate to produce a solution satisfactory to both parties. Competition: it leads to one party gaining the advantage over the other. Accomodation: is a negotiation style where one party is willing to oblige or adapt to meet the needs of other party. Withdrawal or avoidance: it is a negotiation style where both parties lose. In this style, one party retracts their point of view or backs away from the situation. (lose-lose)
51
differing wants or goals and one party interferes with the others attempts to satisfy their wants or goals. Levels of Conflict: Conflict moves through different levels before it reaches the crisis level.
1. 2.
3.
4. 5.
right. It may be difficult to identify what the problem is. Do you feel uncomfortable about a situaition, but not quite sure. Incidents: Here a short, sharp exchange occurs without any lasting internal reaction. Has someting occured between you and someone else that has left you upset, irritated or with a result you did not want. Misunderstandings: Here motives and facts are often confused or misperceived. Do your thoughts keep returning frequently to the problem.
53
negative attitudes and fixed opinions. Has the way you feel about and regard the other person significantly changed for the worse? Is the relationship a source of constant worry and concern? Crisis: Behavior is affected, normal functioning becomes difficult, extreme gestures are contemplated or executed. Are you dealing with a major event like a possible rupture in a relationship, leaving a job, violence?
54
conflict are learnt early in our childhood. These responses become habits and reactions used without thought in our adult life.
1.
2. 3.
55
of view rather than its own point of view is well on the way to providing high quality customer service. It achieves this by clearly defining its customers needs and expectations, and by communicating regularly with them. An organizations customer service is designed around the things customers value, and is continually improved to meet their needs and expectations.
56
requirements
Classify customer value: Basic service, Expected service,
58
areas of resposibility.
First, the organizations resposibility is to provide the
policy and procedures. Second, the meetings executive is resposible for organizing and running the meeting according to its standing orders and formalities. Third, members are required to take part in decision making at the meeting and contribute to areas requiring their expertise.
60
Circular or oval seating arrangement: This is the ideal arrangement. It allows everyone to see everyone else. Long rectangular seating arrangement: It is less than ideal. It can lead to problems such as meetings within meetings the members farthest from the chairperson may talk among themselves. U-shaped seating arrangement: It presents problems similar to those of the long rectangular table. The person on the immediate left of the chairperson tends to have trouble asserting their presence
61
To prepare and set the scene for the meeting To conduct the meeting according to the standing orders or rules of the organization.
62
number needed to conduct meeting) is present, declare the meeting open, welcome people, state the aims of meeting, delegate when necessary, give feedback, encourage participation... Ruling on points of order: The chairperson makes a decision on any points of order that are rised. Following procedures: Chairpersons role is to ensure that correct procedures are followed, and maintain control of the meeting: Allocating enogh time for adequate discussion, be objective and impartial, put forward the motion for the next meeting.
63
amendments:
A motion is a specific proposal formally put by a member to
the rest of the meeting. For example: I move that a pay increase of $30 per week be accepted. An amendment to the motion can be suggested by any member. It is an alteration that aims to clarify the motion (or improve it some other way) by rearranging removing or adding words.
64
motion is completed, the chairperson gives its mover the right of reply. Voting for the motion: The chairperson then asks members to vote for or against the motion. Resolution: A motion put to the meeting and carried becoms a resolution that is, the discussion about it has been resolved to everyones satisfaction.
65
66
67
Practice courtesy and good meeting manners Express your ideas and give feedback Ask questions Listen Match the nonverbal messages to the spoken Follow up
70
Poor verbal skills 2. Inappropriate nonverbal skills 3. Poor listening 4. Unwillingness to participate
1.
71
Nominal group technique: It anables members of a group to work independently as individuals at the meeting, to think about and present new ideas.
Discuss and clarify the situation or problem Work as individuals (think on your own) Present and record ideas Rate the ideas Choose the most preferred option
72
and feel part of the process that produces the results. It is a quick and easy method.
Define the main issue Brief the meeting Encourage all members to participate Evaluate the ideas Choose the action
73
creative, helps the participants understands the reasons for the final decision, and encourages them to discuss the results with others.
Define the problem List all the possible alternatives Discuss an analyze the alternatives Choose a solution Plan the course of action
74
75
76
planning stage of a complex document you will sort your materials before you decide what sequence or order to put it in.
Traditional written outline
1.
2.
Formal outline: shows the main ideas, the supporting information, their position and the connections between them. It is useful for dealing with many complex ideas or details. Informal outline: It lists the main ideas and their supporting information. It is one of the easiest ways of to orgainze simple, uncomplicated information.
77
points or ideas together. It is a technique suited to complicated ideas and it is best to use it after you have fully developed them. This is because it shows up any similarities, differences, overlaps or gaps in your ideas, and identifies their order of importance. The main topic or theme becomes the trunk of the tree. Then each idea that stems from this trunk becomes a branch.
78
in or introduction to your topic and the conclusion. As a closed shape, it contains the main ideas in boxes along the bottom, as a unitConsequently, it helps you to limit your material to what is necessary. Mind Map: Instead of the linear approach to notetaking, the Mind Map offers key concept overviews to which descriptive details can be added. It helps us to make associations between key concepts and relevant experiences. This way of sorting and selecting information is more efficiant than making the traditional kind of structured notes which contain 79 unnecessary words that interrupt the key words.
initiate a business contact, to reply to someone, to give directions, to make requests. Some are written to persuade a potential customer to buy something, or to encourage a customer to pay an overdue account. The four main types of business letters are; 1. Good news letters 2. Bad news letters 3. Neutral letters 4. Persuasive letters
80
Optional Parts
Subject line Attention line
Reference initials
Enclosure File number Senders telephone extensions Senders e-mail or website details
81
82
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
Writing good news or neutral letters: Direct order of information 1. An inquiry 2. A request 3. An acknowledgement 4. A letter of introduction to someone
84
1. 2. 3. 4.
85
cooperation etc.)
The remainder 2. The strong remainder 3. Inquiry 4. Urgency
1.
86
87
88