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AL EMRAN ISMAIL
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The hulls of Liberty Ships fractured without warning, mainly in the North Atlantic.
There were 2,751 Liberty Ships manufactured between 1941-1945.
Cracks propagated in 400 of these ships including 145 catastrophic failures; only 2 exist today which are sea-worthy.
The low temperatures of the North Atlantic caused the steel to be brittle.
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The problem may be prevented by employing higher quality steels and improvement of the design of the ship.
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Boeing 737 Accident On April 28, 1988, part of the fuselage of a Boeing 737 failed after 19 years of service. The failure was caused by fatigue (multisite damage).
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FRACTURE MECHANICS APPROACH: FRACTURE CONTROL have inherent flaws or Structures usually
cracks introduced during: 1) welding process due to welds, embedded slag, holes, porosity, lack of fusion and 2) service due to fatigue, stress corrosion cracking (SCC), impact damage and shrinkage. A fracture-control practice is vital for design engineers in order to assure the integrity of particular structure. This assurance can be accomplished by a close control of:
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Design constraints 2. Fabrication 3. General yielding 4. Maintenance 5. Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) 6. Environmental effects
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FRACTURE MECHANICS APPROACH: FRACTURE CONTROLdetails for the above elements The pertinent
depend on codes and procedures that are required by a particular organization. However, the suitability of a structure to brittle fracture can be evaluated using the concept of fracture mechanics, which is the main subject in this course. For instance, the elapsed time for crackinitiation and crack-propagation determines the useful life of a structure, for which the combination of an existing crack size, applied stress, and loading rate may cause the stress intensity factor reach a critical value.
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FRACTURE MECHANICS APPROACH: FRACTURE CONTROLminimum detectable crack size However, the
depends on the available equipment for conducting nondestructive tests. But the critical crack size, ac can be predicted when the stress intensity factor reaches a critical value, which is commonly known as the plane strain fracture toughness (KI > KIC) for thick plates. In fact, KI < KIC can be taken as the material fracture constraint; otherwise, the crack becomes unstable when it reaches a critical length, a = ac which is strongly controlled by KIC.
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The critical crack length, ac = (1/)(KIC/F)2. This expression implies that the maximum allowable crack length depends on the magnitude of KIC and the applied stress < y. Conclusively, crack propagation occurs when the applied stress intensity factor is equal or greater than fracture toughness, KI KIC for plane strain or KI > KC for plane stress condition.
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A typical fracture-control plan includes the following: Plane strain fracture toughness, Actually, the applied stress intensity factor must be so that it can be used as a constraint, and the designer controls it. This design constraint assures structural integrity since crack propagation is restricted.
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Use of the following inequality for brittle materials assures that the thickness of designed parts do not fall below a minimum thickness.
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If use of welding is necessary, then it must be used very cautiously since it can degrade the toughness of the welded material especially in the heat affected zone (HAZ), which may become brittle as a consequence of rapid cooling leading to smaller grains. Consequently, flaws development is detrimental to the structure or component since the local stresses may amplify at the crack tip.
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The environment in which a structure is put into service. For instance, a corrosive environment may degrade the structure by developing stress corrosion cracks (SCC).
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Limitations of the allowable crack size can be predicted by the given equation. Use of nondestructive test (NDT) techniques. NDT techniques must be employed in order to avoid catastrophic failure by examining structural components for flaws or cracks.
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It is clearly shown that how fracture toughness is strongly dependent on the material thickness up to a limiting value. For a thin plate, plane stress condition (Z = 0) governs the fracture process because the plate is too thin to sustain through-the-thickness stress. For a thick plate, plane strain condition prevails in which becomes a materials property. It is this property, that the designer must use to assure structural integrity. The characteristics of a fracture surface, as schematically indicated the variation between both plane stress and plane strain modes of fracture.
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The former fracture mode shows a slant fracture (shear lips at approximately 45) as an indication of partial ductile fracture, and the latter exhibits a flat fracture surface as a representation of brittle fracture. Any combination of these modes of fracture leads to a mixed mode fracture surface. In addition, plane stress fracture toughness (KC) is related to metallurgical features and specimen geometry, and plane strain fracture toughness (KIC) depends only on metallurgical features and temperature.
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This fracture phenomenon proceeds in a stable manner, provided that both crack size and applied stress are within a controllable range such as ao < a < ac and d < < y. Furthermore, crack instability occurs when a ac and This schematic representation of crack growth applies to both A and B curves, which represent the fracture behavior of two hypothetical materials. Conclusively, the higher KIC the greater ac since the resistance to fracture is controlled by the level of the plane strain fracture toughness.
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