Pulse modulation schemes

Pulse modulation system classified into two categories (i) Analog (ii) Digital In pulse modulation systems pulse is a carrier PAM and PTM belongs to Analog PCM and DELTA modulation belongs to Digital PAM Pulse Amplitude Modulation PTM Pulse Time Modulation PCM Pulse Code Modulation

Pulse amplitude modulation

PAM is a modulation system in which the signal is sampled at regular intervals, and each sample is made proportional to the amplitude of signal at the instant of sampling In generator the signal to be converted to PAM is fed to one input of an AND gate Pulses at the sampling frequency are applied to the other input of the AND gate The output of the gate consists of pulses at the sampling rate, equal in amplitude to the signal voltage at each instant

PAM

Message signal

PAM output

Pulse code modulation

(i)

Elements of PCM

Sampling (ii) Quantizing (iii) Quantization noise (iv) Encoding

PCM
Sampling

The analog signal is divided into number parts at equal intervals. The sampling frequency should be greater than the twice the value of message frequency fs 2 fm where fs is the sampling frequency fm is the message signal frequency

PCM

Quantization The actual value of sampled signal is converted to the nearest standard value E.x - the signal amplitude 6.8 V is rounded off to 7 V The difference between the actual value and standard value is called Quantization error or Quantization noise

PCM

ENCODING

Generally the information is transmitted in 24 level So that there are 16 levels and 4 binary places are required A digit 7 becomes 0111 and it could be sent as oppp, where p= pulse and o = no pulse Actually it is sent as binary number back to front , that is 1110 or pppo, to make demodulation easier

PCM generation

Flat samples

Binary digital signal

Line waveform

m (t)

Anti Aliasing filter

Sample And Hold

quantizer

A/D converter

Line Waveform generator

LPF

continued

Aliasing : If the sampling condition is not met ,parts of the spectra overlap, and once such overlap is allowed to occur the spectra can no longer be separated by filtering. Because the high frequency components in the DSBSC spectrum appear in the low frequency part of spectrum. This effect is called Aliasing. To avoid aliasing the modulating signal is passed through an anti aliasing filter

Advantages and Disadvantages of PCM

It is less corruptible to noise. Time division multiplexing is possible. It can be easily processed by cheap standard techniques and allows new techniques to be used. Dis advantages of PCM: Much larger bandwidth is required. When an error occurs, the result can be catastrophic.

Time division multiplexing

Multiplexing is the sending of number of separate signals together , over the same cable simultaneously without interference Generally there are two classifications 1. Time division multiplexing 2. Frequency division multiplexing

TDM

Each signal is sampled and digitally coded too. Then one sample from each signal is sent in time sequence, one at a time during one sampling interval. The TDM system has two rotating switches, one at each end of a transmission link. The two wipers rotate around the electrical contacts at the same rate. First, part of message 1 is transmitted, then part of message 2 , followed by message 3 and then message 1 again.

TDM
TDM signal Receiving end

Transmitting end

Transmission channel

Commutator

DeCommutator

TDM

The multiplexing is done by synchronous analog switch is called a Commutator or Multiplexer This switch sequentially connects each modulator output to the transmission line only for the short duration of the sampling pulse At the receiving end , a similar circuit called demultiplexer is used to separate the signals

Applications of TDM
TDM

Applications

Digital Telephony Data Communications Satellite Access Cellular Radio

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Frequency division multiplexing is the process of combining several information channels by shifting their signals to different frequency groups within the frequency spectrum so that they can all be transmitted simultaneously on a common transmission facility The combination of SSB modulation and frequency up conversion or down conversion make this possible

FDM

FDM Applications
Radio/TV

Broadcast Cable TV Analog Telephony Mobile Radio Optical Fiber Wireless in general

FDM

Modulation is done in several cascaded stage First pre groups of three 4 khz wide telephone channels are modulated , each pre group using the same frequency assignments The three channel pre groups are combined four at a time to form groups, each containing 12 channels Groups are combined five ata time to form 60 channel master groups And finally the super groups are combined 16 at a time to form 960 channel master groups A total bandwidth of approximately 4,5 Mhz is required for each master group

Companding

Companding is a technique that is used in the transmission of speech signals to reduce the effects of channel noise. The speech signal is compressed in volume range relative to a fixed level. At the output of the channel the signal is expanded by the same ratio referred to the same fixed level. The term compander is used to describe the unit that does the compression and expansion. The main advantage of companding is that it reduces the idle noise on the channel, which allows for an increase in the total number of channels on a multiplexed carrier system.

Advantages of FDM

FDM is not sensitive to propagation Channel equalization techniques needed for FDM systems are therefore not a complex as those for TDM systems. FDM needs band pass filters, which are relatively expensive and complicated to design

Differential PCM

Differential pulse code modulation is a technique in which the difference between samples is encoded in binary The reason for employing DPCM is that speech signals do not change drastically from sample to sample and therefore the difference values can be encoded using fewer bits

Delta modulation

Delta modulation is a special case of DPCM in which only the polarity of the difference signal is encoded as output The main advantage of delta modulation is that the circuitry for both the transmitter and the receiver is very simple The input waveform is sampled at intervals determined by the clock pulse At each sample time, we check to see if the signal amplitude has increased or decreased since the last sample

The modulator circuit replies by giving out logic levels (or binary signals) at its output. A logic level 1 output means the signal has increased. A logic level 0 output means the signal has decreased. (ignore the situation where the signal stays at a constant level)

Delta modulation
If

the difference between the analog input and the feedback signal is positive , this is encoded as binary 1 which is transmitted as a positive voltage pulse And if negative, as a binary 0 , which is transmitted as a negative voltage pulse

Delta modulation

The output from the modulator is therefore a series of logic levels often called a binary stream of ones and zeroes to indicate the rise and fall of the waveform since the previous sample was taken

DM Transmitter
Clock pulses

comparator m (t) (t) m (t) Po (t)

DM Transmitter

At the transmitter , one input to the multiplier is a periodic train of unipolar impulses The other input is the output from the comparator, which consists fixed amplitude pulses whose polarity depends on the difference signal at the comparator input The feedback signal m(t) is the integral of the multiplier output The polarity is positive if the analog signal m(t) is greater than the feedback signal m(t) The polarity is negative if the analog signal m(t) is less than the feedback signal m(t)

Delta modulation

Delta Modulator
A delta modulator consists of an up down counter whose output is fed back via an integrator and compared with the input signal If the integrated output level is larger than the input then the next output digit is a one and if smaller a zero

DM Receiver

Po(t)

Reconstruction

m(t)

filter

DM Receiver

At the receiver, a regenerator is used to recover the po (t) impulse waveform , which is integrated to produce signal which is transmitted at the transmitter The analog output m(t) is recovered from the integrator output through the use of a low pass filter

Comparison between DM and PCM

DM has better signal to quantizing noise than PCM DM has better resolution compared to PCM DM signal is more resistant to transmission noise causing more bit error than in PCM At lower bit rates ,DM is better than PCM but at higher bit rates PCM is better Circuitry for DM is less complex compared to that of PCM

Companding

Companding is a method of increasing the accuracy of transmission of small signal level The analog signal is distorted in a controlled manner before quantizing by compressing its larger values and then expanding them again after recovery at the receiver This has the effect of providing many more quantization levels closer together for small signals and correspondingly fewer quantization levels for the larger signals This method will reduce quantizing error for small signals

Digital carrier systems

Digital data may be modulated onto a carrier wave In general the function of the carrier is to shift the digital data from the baseband region into a pass band region of the frequency spectrum The modulation methods of amplitude ,frequency and phase are used to modulate the baseband signal

Applications

Area of Use Audio Frequency multiplexing on to voice frequency channel for teletype or data, mainly FSK Radio teletype (RTTY) transmission at HF and VHF ------FSK Digital signal on microwave radio terrestrial and satellite. Mainly PCM using PSK and PAM

Amplitude shift keying

The digital signal is used to switch the carrier between amplitude levels, and hence it is referred to as amplitude shift keying In some cases the carrier frequency is switched ON and OFF, the method is known as on-off keying or sometimes it is called as interrupted continuous wave transmission It is less efficient than angle modulation

ASK,FSK and PSK waveforms

Contd..
V(ask)(t) = [1+Vm(t)][A/2cos ct] V(ask)(t) = amplitude shift keying wave Vm(t) = digital information (modulating signal) (volts) A/2 = Unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts) c = analog carrier frequency (radian per second) The modulating signal Vm(t) is a normalized binary waveform where +1V = logic 1 and -1 = logic 0 For logic 1 input , Vm(t) = +1 V Therefore the above equation reduces to V(ask)(t) = [1+1][A/2cos ct] Acos (ct)

Contd..

For logic 0 input Vm(t) = -1V then the above equation reduces to V(ask)(t) = [1-1][A/2cos ct] =0 Hence the carrier is either ON and OFF therefore amplitude shift keying is called on off keying

ASK

ASK
antenna

Crystal Oscillator

Buffer Amplifier

Frequency Multiplier Amplifier

Driver Amplifier

Final Amplifier Class C

Antenna Matching Circuit

Keying Circuit

Channel selector
Power Supply

Metering

Amplitude shift keying

Crystal oscillators are used to produce the particular frequency Channel selector switch is provided to generate different frequency range Buffer amplifier provides better frequency stability The oscillator frequency is lower than the required carrier frequency, so that multiplier stage is provided to get the required carrier frequency Driver amplifier is used to amplify the signal before it enters to the power amplifier Antenna matching circuit is used to match the impedance Keying circuit is used to interrupt the final amplifier by means of make break contact Metering is used to monitor the power consumption of the total unit

Demodulation of ook

OUT Ook wave

LPF
Carrier recovery circuit fc

Demodulation of ook
Synchronous

detection requires a carrier recovery circuit, which is used to generate a local carrier component exactly synchronized to the transmitted carrier Then the locally generated carrier and the received signal to the multiplier Then the multiplier output is given to the low pass filter

Frequency shift keying

the carrier frequency is shifted in steps or levels corresponding to the levels of the digital modulating signal In the case of a binary signal two carrier frequencies are used One corresponding to the binary 0 and the other to a binary 1 Two carriers may be generated from separate oscillators Single oscillator is frequency modulated by the digital signal , the method is referred to as continuous phase frequency shift keying (CPFSK)

Contd..
V(fsk)(t)=

VcCos {2[fc+Vm(t)f ]t} Where V(fsk)(t) = binary fsk waveform Vc = peak analog carrier amplitude(volts)

fc = analog carrier centre frequency(hertz) f = peak change (shift) in analog carrier frequency (hertz) Vm(t) = binary input (modulating signal (volts) The shift in carrier frequency f is proportional to the amplitude of the binary input signal

Contd..

The modulating signal Vm(t) is a normalized binary waveform where +1V = logic 1 and -1 = logic 0 Thus for a logic 1 input Vm(t) =+1 so that we can write V(fsk)(t) = Vc Cos [2(fc+f)t] For a logic input 0 ; Vm(t) = - 1,therefore the equation becomes V(fsk)(t) = Vc Cos [2(fc - f)t] The carrier frequency fc is shifted up and down with respect to the input 0 and 1 The shifted output frequencies are termed as Mark frequency and Space frequency For logic 1 = mark frequency For logic 0 = space frequency

Contd..

The frequency deviation is defined as the difference between either the mark or space frequency and centre frequency f = fm-fs

The mark frequency is higher frequency; fc+ f The space frequency is lower frequency ; fc- f

Frequency shift keying

Usage of FSK
1.

At audio frequencies for multiplexing on to 4kHz telephone channels for teletype or data 2. At HF and VHF for RTTY (radio teletype) transmission for teletype

FSK modulator
Mark oscillator
Digital Input signals

Space oscillator

f1 Mark switch f2 Inverter Space switch

Summing amplifier

FSK

the stream of digital signal are given to the mark switch and the inverter If the input signal is high voltage signal representing 1, the mark switch will be closed The signal from the mark oscillator with frequency f1 is passed through the mark switch to the summing amplifier The mark signal which is a high voltage signal is inverted by a inverter and becomes low voltage signal Now the space switch is open

continued

If the signal is the space signal , the mark switch will be open And then the signal is inverted and given as the input to the space switch , the space switch will be closed The signal from the space oscillator will reach the summing amplifier If the digital signal is 1, the output of the summing amplifier will be the signal with the frequency f1 If the digital signal is 0 then the output of the summing amplifier will be the signal with the frequency f2 Thus the signals with the different frequencies are transmitted

Separate oscillator method

NRZ Binary digital input V 0

Fsk output

FSK modulator (VCO)

FSK demodulation
T
R A S M I S S I O N C H A N N E L Mark band Pass filter Mark Detector

Digital output signal

+

Difference

amplifier
Mark band Pass filter Mark Detector

Detection of FSK

At the receiver the mark signal with the frequency f1 is passed through the mark band pass filter and detected by the mark detector The signal is given to the non inverting terminal of the difference amplifier The space signal with the frequency f2 that reaches the receiver will be passed by the space band pass filter and detected by the space detector The demodulated signal is given as input to the inverting terminal of the difference amplifier

continued

The output of the difference amplifier will be the signal with positive voltage if the signal with frequency f1 reach the input of the difference amplifier This represents the digital signal 1 The output of the difference amplifier will be the signal with negative voltage if the signal with frequency f2 reach the input of the difference amplifier This represents the digital signal 0

Phase shift keying

The

binary signal is used to switch the phased between 0 and 180 The various types of PSK are 1.BPSK ( Bi phase shift Keying) 2.QPSK ( Quadrature phase shift keying)

PSK Modulator
Bit splitter I Balanced modulator 0 Adder 90 Q Balanced modulator clock serial data input output

FF

Sine oscillator
FF

PSK Modulator

The input serial data is sampled by 2 bit shift register and converted into a parallel output signal by a clock pulse This circuit is called bit splitter The output of the MSB register of the bit splitter is channeled to the I balanced modulator The output from the LSB register of the bit splitter is directed to the Q balanced modulator A decimal 0 will give up a +V to both the I balanced modulator The output of the I balanced modulator is in phase with the carrier oscillator

continued

The +V to the Q balanced modulator will output with 90 degree phase difference with respect to I signal Finally the adder will give the PSK output

Contd..
D1

T1
Reference carrier input D4 D3

T2

Sin ct

Modulated PSK output

D2

Binary data in

Contd..
T1
D1 on

T2

D3 D4 OFF Sin ct

0 Carrier output D2 on

+V(binary 1)

Contd..
T1
Carrier input
D3 and D4 on Sin ct

D1 off

T2
- sin ct

D2 off

180

Carrier output

-V binary 0)

Contd..

The diagram shows BPSK transmitter The balanced modulator act as a phase reversing switch Depending upon the logic condition of the digital input the carrier is transferred to the output either in phase or 180 out of phase with reference carrier oscillator The balanced modulator has two inputs (i) A carrier that is in phase with the reference oscillator (ii) binary digital data For the proper operation of balanced modulator digital input voltage must be greater than the peak carrier voltage

Contd..

If the binary input is a logic 1(positive voltage) the diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and on while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased A carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 in phase with the carrier voltage across Therefore the output signal is in phase with the reference oscillator If the binary input logic zero(negative voltage),the diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased and off ,while diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and on A carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 180 out of phase with the carrier voltage across T1

Binary input

Time

BPSK output

Time

Sinct 0

- Sinct 180

Sinct 0

- Sinct 180

Sinct 0

- Sinct 180

Sinct 0

-Sinct 180

Degree in radians

PSK

PSK Demodulator

I DET 0

LPF Serial output

Carrier recovery
90

Adder

Q DET PSK input

LPF

PSK Demodulator

The PSK signals are given as input to the I detector and Q detector MSB signal and the carrier signal from the carrier recover given to the I detector Now this is demodulated by I detector LSB signal with carrier signal from the carrier recover given to the Q detector Now this is demodulated by Q detector Both signals are passed through the LPF and then to the adder The adder will give the serial data output

BPSK receiver
Unipolar binary Data output BPSK input

BPF

Balanced Modulator

LPF

Level Converter

Coherent Carrier Recovery

Clock Recovery

BPSK receiver

The input binary signal may be +sinct or -sinct The coherent carrier recovery circuit detects and regenerates a carrier signal that is both frequency and phase coherent with the original transmit carrier The balanced modulator is a product detector The output is the product of the two inputs The low pass filter separates the recovered binary data from the complex demodulated signal

Contd..

Mathematically, For a BPSK input signal of +sinct (logic 1) ,the output of the balanced modulator is Output = (sinct )(sinct ) = sin2 ct sin2 ct = (1- cos2 ct ) = 1/2 -1/2 cos2 ct Filtered out Output = +1/2V = logic 1 For a BPSK input signal of -sinct (logic 0) ,the output of the balanced modulator is Output = (-sinct )(-sinct ) = - sin2 ct -sin2 ct = (1- cos2 ct ) = -1/2 +1/2 cos2 ct Filtered out output = -1/2 V = logic 0

Advantages of PSK 1. Less susceptible to noise degradation 2. Less bandwidth than FSK 3. Bandwidth reduced by multilevel schemes

QPSK

Noise

The unwanted signal that is received along with the transmitted signal is called as noise There are two types of noise They are (i) Internal noise (ii) External noise Internal noise It is the noise that is produced within the receiver itself External noise It is the noise produced due to the factors that is outside the receiver i) Due to the atmospheric condition ii) Due to man made electrical device

Noise figure
It

is the ratio of the signal to noise ratio at the amplifier input to the signal to noise ratio at the receiver output at the load resistor

Internal noise
1. Thermal noise 2. Shot noise 3. Partition noise

External Noise
Motor,

switches and power line are all source of this noise Impulse noise : come form sudden on/ off event AC power line : create hum noise Many External noise are not man-made Natural events in the atmosphere, outer space

Internal Noise
the

motion of electrons in the circuit generate noise The result is the electronic circuitry and components add some noise to the signal
The

simplest type of internal noise is called thermal noise

Noise measurement
If

the noise is 0.5v is refer to rms value Signal to noise ratio

SNR S

= 10 log s/n dB

is signal power N is noise power

Noise factor
The

noise factor F can be defined as F = available S/N power ratio at the input available S/N power ratio at the output

Noise in Digital signal

= Inter Symbol Interference due to bandwidth limitations Quantization noise BER= Bit Error Rate
ISI

Noise parameters

Noise temperature : the noise temperature of source is the apparent temperature which gives the noise power it actually produces.

Noise Figure: it is a measure of the amount of extra noise power added by the network itself. F=(available noise power output)/ G (available noise power in)

dB value
dB

unit is used to used to specify the input and output signal level in a communication system If the dB level is specified with one mW reference then it is called as dBm value

Thermal noise

Thermal interaction between the free electrons and vibrating ions in a conductor The resistors in all electronic devices constantly producing the noise voltage This noise is called as thermal noise This noise is also called as Johnson noise Johnson noise can be given as pn = kTf Where k = Boltzman constant (1.38X10-23 j/k) T = Resistor temperature in Kelvin f = Frequency bandwidth of the system

Transistor noise or shot noise

The

noise introduced by the transistor other than thermal noise is called as shot noise This noise is due to the random motion of current carriers in a semiconductors Even under DC conditions also the carriers not moving in steady continuous flow since the distance they travel varies due to the random paths of motion

Partition noise
It

is the noise produced since the current is divided into many braches Flicker noise In semiconductors the flicker noise arises due to the fluctuations in the carrier densities ( holes and electrons) which in turn give rise to fluctuations in the conductivity of the material

Problem 1

An audio base band is limited to a nominal frequency range of 0-6 khz. It is sampled at the Nyquist frequency for the highest signal frequency and coded into 8 bit PCM. It is then time division multiplexed with 24 other similar signals, limited to the same audio range to form a TDM frame. 1. What is sampling frequency 2.What is the bit length for one channel after PCM encoding 3. What is frame length 4. What bit rate does the PSK modulator receive

Problem 2
What

is the noise voltage Vn when the temperature is 120c, the bandwidth is 2000Hz and the equivalent noise resistance is 750

Solution : 4KTBR

Problem 3

A signal from a space satellite with -100dBm of power is being received by a deep space satellite communication system dish antenna. The special preamplifier boosts this by 60 dBm, and another preamplifier has an additional gain of 30 dBm. The signal is further amplified by 25, 10, and 20 dBm by further amplifier stages. Calculate the following (i) The overall gain (ii) The level in dBm after the first two stages (iii) The level in dBm after all stages

Problem 4
A

satellite antenna with noise temperature of 90k is connected to a receiving system which has a noise temperature of 30k . Calculate the overall noise temperature , noise ratio, and noise figure

Problem 5
The

input power to a repeater is made up of 200w of signal power and 1.5 w of noise power. The repeater contributes an additional 50 w of noise and has a power gain of 20 dB. Compute the following 1.Input SNR 2.Output SNR 3.Noise factor ,F 4.Noise figure, NF

Problem 6
A

transistor amplifier operating at a centre frequency of 1MHz at 27C and bandwidth of 12 kHz is driven by a 750 source. The voltage gain is 50 and the input impedance is 750 .If the input signal voltage is 1 mV and noise output is 25V, determine the noise figure. (Boltzmanns constant, k = 1.38x10-23 j/k)`

Problem 7 A system has 100W of signal power and 10W of noise power. What is the band width needed to send 10,000 bits/sec?

solution
Bandwidth

= Channel capacity log2 1 + Signal power

Noise power

10000 log2(1+100/10)

= 2882Hz or 2.88 KHz

Problem 7
Determine

the noise figure of an amplifier using a device that has an input impedance of 500ohms and a voltage gain of 100. the bandwidth of the amplifier is 15000 cycles and the temperature is 27degree Celsius ,driven by a 500 ohms source. The input signal voltage to the amplifier is 2 mV and the measured output noise voltage is 40V.