Soils

Classification, Physical properties and Behaviour

Soil
forms a thin layer of earths crust is the loose top surface of our planet. covers a major portion of the earth's land surface. is an important natural resource that either directly or indirectly supports most of the planet's life even to an extent of balancing the food chain. Formation of soil: happens over a very long period of time. by the interaction of the processes between the rock and the hydrologic cycle with the weathered rocks. Weathering is the process of the breaking down rocks. It refers to the physical and chemical disintegration and decomposition of rocks which are not under equilibrium temperature, pressure and moisture conditions on the earth's surface. Physical weathering Chemical weathering.

Soil composition:
Soils are a mixture of rocks, minerals, and dead, decaying plants and animals. Water: Gravity water Capillary water Hydroscopic Air Solid matter- mixture of mineral and organic constituents that are in solid, gaseous and aqueous states. organic inorganic matter

It is categorised according to particle size whether the soil formed is SAND, SILT or CLAY. The ratio determines the classification and characteristics of the soil.

Classification of soils:
systematic categorization of soils based on the size of the particles. It is the mineral content and the biological process of the parent rocks which decides the particle size of the soils. Soils are mainly classifies into following types:

Source: Site Planning Kevin Lynch

Classification of soils: continued

Gravel

Silt

Sand

Clay

Peat/ Muck Image Source: Wikipedia

Classification of soils: continued

Soils in India 1) Alluvial soils 2) Black soils 3) Red and Yellow soils 4) Laterite soils 5) Arid soils 6) Saline soils 7) Peaty and Organic soils 8) Forest soils

Source: http://www.preservearticles.com/2011101215241/short-essay-on-theclassification-of-soils-in-india.html https://sites.google.com/a/tges.org/geo-jaydeep/std-10-geography/soils-of-india

Soil Properties:
Soil bearing capacity: It is the capacity of the soil to withstand the loads. It is the contact pressure between the soil and the type of construction within the soil. Soils with higher soil bearing capacities such as weathered rock and sand provides good base for the foundations. Sandy Loam and Silty Loam - suitable for development of landscape areas, jogging tracks, pathways weathered rock has high bearing capacity- provides a good base for foundations. Porosity: It is the measure of void spaces in the material. Porosity of surface soil typically decreases as particle size increases. This is due to soil aggregate formation in finer textured surface soils when subject to soil biological processes. Bulk Density: It is the mass of dry soil per unit volume, expressed in grams per cubic centimeter. Bulk Density varies with Soil texture and soil organic matter content. Bulk Density of mineral soils is higher than those of organic soils. Bulk Density strongly affects the nutrient and soil water characteristics of a site.

Soil Properties: continued

Permeability: It is the property of the soil pore system that allows the fluid to flow. Presence of Water: Water in soil systems is held in pore spaces as films of water absorbed to soil particles. The Water Holding capacity of soils helps determine the amount of water available for plant uptake and growth for microbial processes, including decomposition and nutrient cycling and loss. Organic Matter: This content is a critical component of soils, affecting rates of weathering and soil development, soil water-holding capacity, soil structure, and nutrient retention. In addition, soil organic matter provides the energy and carbon base for heterotrophic soil organisms and is important reservoir of essential nutrients required in plant growth.
Sand Porosity Permeability Field capacity Soil particle surface Mostly large pores Rapid Limited Small Silt Predominant small pores Low to moderate Medium Medium Clay Predominant small pores Low Very large Very large

Bearing Capacity of Soil

Bearing capacity is the ability of foundation soil to hold the forces from the superstructure without undergoing shear failure or excessive settlement. Foundation soil is that portion of ground which is subjected to additional stresses when foundation and superstructure are constructed on the ground.

Ground Level

Super Structure Foundation

Foundation Soil

a- General shear failure b- Local shear failure c- Punching shear failure Eg of Shear failure

Some examples of of Shear failure

Bearing Capacity of Soil continued

Ultimate Bearing Capacity. qu The generally accepted method of bearing capacity analysis is to assume that the soil below the foundation along a critical plane of failure (slip path) is on the verge of failure and to calculate the bearing pressure applied by the foundation required to cause this failure condition. This is the Ultimate bearing capacity. Also defined as, the minimum gross pressure intensity at the base of the foundation at which the soil fails in shear. Safe or Allowable Bearing Capacity. The allowable bearing capacity qa is the ultimate bearing capacity qu divided by an appropriate factor of safety FS.

qa = qu /FS
FS is often determined to limit settlements to less than 1 inch and it is often in the range of 2 to 4.

Source: http://www.cedengineering.com/upload/Bearing%20Capacity%20of%20Soils.pdf

Bearing Capacity of Soil continued

Factor of Safety It is the factor of ignorance about the soil under consideration. It depends on many factors such as: Type of soil Method of exploration Level of Uncertainty in Soil Strength Importance of structure and consequences of failure Likelihood of design load occurrence, etc.

Bearing Capacity of Soil continued

Methods of Estimating Bearing capacity:
Analytical Methods using Soil parameters Plate load test on the soil Penetration test Presumptive bearing capacity values from codes

Analytical Method
Determined in the laboratory, by conducting shear tests on soil samples collected from bore holes or test pits. Using two important shear parameters of soil : Angle of internal friction Cohesion Method examples: Rankines Analysis Terzaghis Analysis

For further reading: http://civteam.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/bearing-capacity.doc

Bearing Capacity of Soil continued

Methods of Estimating Bearing capacity: Plate load test
Field test to determine ultimate bearing capacity Consist of loading a rigid plate at the foundation level and determining the settlements corresponding to each load increment. The ultimate bearing capacity is then taken as the load starts sinking at a rapid rate. Gravity loading platform method

For further reading: http://civteam.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/bearing-capacity.doc

Bearing Capacity of Soil continued

Methods of Estimating Bearing capacity:

For further reading: http://civteam.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/bearing-capacity.doc

Bearing Capacity of Soil continued

Methods of Estimating Bearing capacity:
Plate load test - Reaction truss method

For further reading: http://civteam.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/bearing-capacity.doc

Bearing Capacity of Soil continued

Methods of Estimating Bearing capacity:
Standard Penetration test It involve the measurements of the resistance to penetration of a sampling spoon, a cone or other shaped tool under dynamic or static loadings. The resistance is empirically correlated with properties of soil like density index, bearing capacity etc. Dutch cone test Used for getting a continuous record of the resistance of soil by penetrating steadily under static pressure a cone with a base of 10sq cm and an angle of 60degree at vertex.

For further reading: http://civteam.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/bearing-capacity.doc

Bearing Capacity of Soil continued

Methods of Estimating Bearing capacity:
It consists of a split spoon sampler 50.8 mm OD, 35 mm ID, min 600 mm long and 63.5 kg hammer freely dropped from a height of 750 mm. Test is performed on a clean hole 50 mm to 150 mm in diameter. Split spoon sampler is placed vertically in the hole, allowed to freely settle under its own weight or with blows for first 150 mm which is called 65 kg Hammer seating drive. 750 Tripod mm The number of blows required for the next 300 mm penetration into the ground is the standard penetration number N Bore Hole Apply the desired corrections (such as Split Spoon Sampler corrections for overburden pressure, saturated fine silt and energy) N is correlated with most properties of soil such as friction angle, undrained cohesion, density etc.

Bearing Capacity of Soil continued

Methods to Improve SBC
When foundations become uneconomical it becomes essential to improve SBC.

Increasing depth of foundation

When better bearing stratum is encountered at greater depth.

Compacting the soil

Ramming moist soil Rubble compaction into the soil Flooding the soil very effective with sands Vibration granular soils to a depth of 1-3m is compacted, especially after flooding. Vibroflotation commercial method using vibroflot

Bearing Capacity of Soil continued

Methods of Improve SBC
Compaction by pre loading useful in clayey soils, pre loading results in accelerated consolidation and settlements are achieved before actual footing is laid. Using sand piles Hollow pipes are driven at close intervals resulting in compaction. Pipes are removed and sand is filled & rammed into the holes. Draining the soil results in decrease in voids ratio and improvement of bearing power. Confining the soil reducing the lateral movement of soil by driving sheet piles and forming an enclosure. Grouting for loose gravels and fissured rock- bore holes and cement grout is forced through them. Chemical treatment instead of grout specific chemicals are used.

Sand
Sources of Sand: Sand particles consist of small grains of silica (Si02). It is formed by the decomposition of sand stones due to various effects of weather. The following are the natural sources of sand. a. Pit Sand: obtained by forming pits to a depth of about 1m to 2m from ground level. Pit sand consists of sharp angular grains, which are free from salts b. River Sand: from beds of rivers. fine rounded grains. Colour of river sand is almost white. widely used for all purposes. c. Sea Sand: obtained from sea shores. consists of rounded grains in light brown colour. Sea sand consists of salts sea sand & is not recommendable

Sand..continued
Characteristics of sand: 1. It should be chemically inert 2. It should be clean and coarse. It should be free from organic matter. 3. It should contain sharp, angular and durable grains. 4. It should not contain salts, which attract the moisture from atmosphere. 5. It should be well graded (i.e.) should contain particles of various sizes in suitable proportions. Grading Sand passing through a screen with clear opening of 1.5875mm is known as fine sand. Sand passing through a screen with clear openings of 7.62mm is known as gravely sand. It is generally used for plastering. Sand passing through a screen with clear opening of 3.175mm is known as coarse sand.

Sand..continued
Bulking of Sand The presence of moisture in sand increases the volume of sand- moisture causes film of water around the sand particles which result in the increase of volume of sand. For a moisture content of 5 to 8 %, the increase in volume may be about 5 to 8 %, depending upon the grading of sand. Finer the material, the more will be the increase in volume for a given moisture content. This phenomenon is known as bulking of sand. the dry sand and the sand completely flooded with water have practically the same volume. Test The height of sand is measured say 16cm, then bulking of sand = (20 16)/16 = 4/16 or 25%

Shoring
Construction of a temporary structure to support temporarily an unsafe structure. They render lateral support. Types: Raking shores Flying shores Dead shores In raking shores, rakers are used to give lateral support. Components Wall plate 20-25cm wide & 7.5cm thk Needles- penetrate wall by 10cm Cleats- nailed directly to the wall plate Bracing Sole plate feet of rakers connected to inclined sole plate.

Shoringcontinued
Flying or horizontal shores give horizontal support to two adjacent parallel walls which became unsafe due to removal/collapse of the intermediate building. Upto 9m distance single flying shore Above 9m double flying shore Centre lines of flying shore, struts and walls should meet at floor lvls of the building. Struts preferably at 45 degrees. Spaced at 3-4.5m centres and horizontal braces introduced between adjacent shores.

Shoringcontinued
Dead or vertical shores consists of dead shores supporting horizontal members known as needles. Needles transfer the load to dead shores. To rebuild the defective lower part of a wall, to rebuild or deepen the existing foundation or make a large opening in the existing wall. Section of needles and dead shores should be adequate to transfer the load. Needles are spaced at 1-2 m. Min. of 3 needles/opening. Dead shores are supported on sole plates. Folding wedges should be inserted between two.

Shoringcontinued
Several in-situ support systems have been deployed for containing deep excavations. Following types of deep support systems are commonly used in metropolitan cities. (i) Diaphragm walls (ii) Pile walls (Contiguous, Tangent or Secant) (iii) Soldier pile with wooden lagging walls (iv) Sheet pile walls (v) Composite supporting systems Diaphragm walling is a technique of constructing a continuous underground wall from the ground level. provide structural support and water tightness. also called Slurry trench walls due to the the construction technique applications: earth retention walls for deep excavations; basements, and tunnels; High capacity vertical foundation elements; Retaining wall foundations; water control.

Shoringcontinued
Steps involved in the construction of diaphragm wall can be broadly listed as follows: (i) Guide wall construction along alignment (ii) Trenching by crane operated Grab/ hydraulic grab (iii) Bentonite flushing (iv) Lowering reinforcement cage (v) Concreting using tremie

Shoringcontinued
Piled Retaining Systems There are different types of pile walls
In Contiguous bored pile construction, center to center spacing of piles is kept slightly greater than the pile diameter. Secant bored piles are formed by keeping this spacing of piles less than the diameter. Tangent piles are used when secant piling or diaphragm walling equipment is not available.

Secant pile shoring

Shoringcontinued
. Considered more economical than diaphragm wall in small to medium scale excavations due to reduction in cost of site operations. Common pile diameters adopted are 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0m. These piles are connected with a Capping beams at the top.

Contiguous piling

Shoringcontinued
Soldier Pile with Wooden Lagging System Soldier pile and lagging walls are some of the oldest forms of retaining systems used in deep excavations.
This type of retaining system involves the following broad based activities: (i) Constructing soldier piles at regular intervals (1 to 3m on center typically) (ii) Excavating in small stages and installing wooden lagging. (iii) Backfilling and compacting the void space behind the lagging. In recent times, precast concrete slabs are adopted for the lagging.

Shoringcontinued
Sheet piles Thin piles made of plates of concrete, timber or steel are driven into the ground with suitable pile drivers and successive instalments of sheets are added.
Also used for enclosing a part of site and reducing the lose of sub soil, to form water tight enclosure, to construct retaining walls in docks, wharfs etc.

Timbering
When the excavation depth is large or when the sub soil is loose, to avoid sides caving in timbering is done. Stay bracing For excavation not exceeding 2m and in fairly firm soil Consist s of placing vertical sheets (polling boards) opposite each other and holding them in position by 1 or 2 rows of struts. Box Sheeting For excavation not exceeding 4m and in loose soils Box like structure vertical sheets placed very near, hold in position using longitudinal rows of wales and with struts across the wales. For very loose soils longitudinal sheeting, vertical wales and horizontal struts are used.

Timbering.continued
Vertical sheeting For deep trenches upto 10m depth. Similar to box sheeting , but excavation in stages and the the end of each stage an offset is provided. Each stage limited to 3m height. Runner system For extremely loose soils which need immediate support as excavation progress. Similar to vertical box sheeting, but instead of vertical sheeting, runners- thick wooden sheets with iron shoe at the ends are used. Runners are hammer driven 30cm in advance of excavation. Sheet piling Soil is soft or loose, Large excavation depth, Large width of trench, Presence of sub soil water.

Source:Building Construction (BC Punmia) http://www.itdcem.co.in/itdcem.pdf

Shallow Foundations
Terzaghi depth is equal to or less than its width. Also known as open foundation. Spread footing supports either one wall or column. Strip footing wall simple footing when wall carries light loads or when sbc is very high wall directly rests on concrete base and no masonry offsets width of concrete base not less than twice wall width

stepped footing when wider footing required masonry offsets provided width to height of offset important (1/2 hori. to 1 vertical)

Shallow Foundations..continued
Pad footing or Isolated footing for a single column A = P/qs, P-total load, qs- sbc of the soil simple pad footing simple concrete block projecting out from the column face on all sides. shape of footing generally same as that of the column. base dimension should not be less than twice the appropriate lateral dimension of the column in that direction.

Shallow Foundations..continued
Pad footing or Isolated footing for a single column

stepped pad footing simple concrete block projecting out from the column face on all sides. when wider footing required masonry offsets provided width to height of offset important (1/2hori. To 1 vertical)

footings for RCC columns

Shallow Foundations..continued
Combined footing supports two columns. more than 2 columns continuous footing some conditionscolumns are very near so that footings overlap. bearing capacity is less, require more area under individual footing a column is near property line so that its footing cant spread in that direction. may be rectangular or trapezoidal in shape.

Shallow Foundations..continued
Raft foundation a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all the walls and columns. some conditionsallowable soil pressure being low and spread footings may cover more than half the area. erratic soil leading to differential settlement. True raft flat concrete slab with uniform thickness When column loads are heavy slab under columns are thickened. If the column spacing is large thickened bands may be provided along the columns lines in both directions.

Deep Foundations
Caissons caisse french word for chest or box. box like structure round or rectangular sunk from the surface of land or water to desired depth. Box caissons Open caissons Pneumatic caissons Box Caisson Open at top and closed at bottom Made of timber, RCC or steel Used where bearing stratum is available at shallow depth. Used for breakwaters and sea walls

Deep Foundations ..continued

Open Caisson (Well foundation) Open at both top and bottom Made of timber, RCC or steel Most common bridge foundation in India. When depth is more than 5-7m, open excavations become uneconomical. In well foundation the shell is sunk by dredging inside of it. Shapes of well can be single circular, rectangular, twin circular, dumbbell, double-D, twin hexagonal & twin octagonal. Components of well foundation o Well curb designed to support the weight of the well o Cutting edge as sharp an edge without making it weak, in concrete wrapped with 12mm steel plates o Steining thickness to sink the well by its own self weight. o Bottom plug bowl shaped PCC plug

Deep Foundations ..continued

Open Caisson (Well foundation).construction
Laying the well curb On dry river bed excavation upto half a meter above subsoil water lvl is carried out and well curb is laid. When there is water in the river, suitable coffer dams are constructed around the site of the well and island of suitable size to accommodate working space is made. Inside shuttering brick, outside shuttering steel lined timber. All reinforcement for curb placed and vertical steining bars to project 2m beyond the top of curb. Concreting to be done in one continuous operation. Masonry in well steining To be built in initial short height of about 2m only. Not to allowed to build more than 5m at a time. Steining thickness for 3m dia wall - 0.75m for 5m dia wall - 1.20m for 7m dia wall - 2.00m After each stage of sinking , all damaged portion on top should be repaired. Well masonry is cured for atleast 48 hours before starting the sinking operation.

Deep Foundations ..continued

Open Caisson (Well foundation).construction

sinking Sinking or set in starts after casting the curb and building the 1st masonry stage Done by excavating material from inside under the curb. Excavation done initially manually and later mechanically. As the well sinks deeper and skin friction and buoyancy increase, additional loading kentledge- is applied. Tilts and shifts should be avoided Outer surface of curb and steinings should be regular and smooth. Radius of the curb should be 2-4cm larger than the steining radius. Cutting edge of the curb should be of uniform thickness and sharpness. Completion When the well reach the desired strata, further sinking is stopped. Bowl shaped bottom concrete seal is provided. After plugging, the interior space is some times filled with water or sand and capped with RCC slab.

Deep Foundations ..continued

Pneumatic Caissons

Closed at top and open at bottom during construction Compressed air is used to remove water from the working chamber at bottom. Subsoil is not allowed inside this pressurised chamber. Can be used for depths of water ranging from 12-35m.
Sinking Caisson is sunk like other caisson in shallow water. When presence of water pose problems, two airlocks are used one for sending laborers inside and other for removing excavated material. After placing airlock, water is pumped out from the bottom and air pressure is gradually increased so that fresh water doesnt enter the working chamber. Excavation is carried out in the working chamber by the laborers sent down through air lock and excavated material is sent up through muck bucket and hoist rope. On reaching the cottom, concrete bottom seal is placed, air locks removed and void filled with water or sand.

Deep Foundations ..continued