1

By
K. SAI KRISHNA
Assistant Professor
Introduction:
Most of information carrying signals such as
voltage, current, temperature, pressure and time are
available in the analog form.

For processing, transmission and storage
purposes, it is often more convenient to express such
signals in the digital form. When expressed in the
digital form, they provide better accuracy and
reduce noise.



2
3
Basic DAC Techniques:

4
we shall discuss the following resistive techniques
only:

1.Binary-Weighted resistor DAC
2.R-2R ladder
3.Inverted R-2R ladder
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1.Binary-Weighted resistor DAC

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Basic Ideas:
Use a summing op-
amp circuit
Use transistors to
switch between high
and ground

Assumptions:
Ideal Op-Amp
No Current into
Op-Amp
Virtual Ground at
Inverting Input

V
out
= -IR
f


Binary-Weighted resistor DAC


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For ON-Switch ( i/p is 1), I=

For OFF Switch ( i/p is 0), I=0
R
V
R
Binary-Weighted resistor DAC


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Advantages
Simple
Fast
Disadvantages
o Needs large range of resistor values (2000:1 for
12-bit) with high precision in low resistor
values.
o Needs very small switch resistances.
Summary
Use in fast, low-precision converter
2. R/2R Ladder Digital-to-Analog Converters
Only two resistor values

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Each bit corresponds to a switch:

If the bit is high, the corresponding switch is connected to the
inverting input of the op-amp.

If the bit is low, the corresponding switch is connected to
ground.
R/2R Ladder Digital-to-Analog Converters
Current division and analog output versus
digital input
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Output for R-2R network,
Here,


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|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
R
V
D
R
V
D
R
V
D
R
V
D R V f
16 8 4 2
ref
0
ref
1
ref
2
ref
3 out
Where b
3
corresponds to bit 3,b
2
to bit 2, etc.
If bit n is set, b
n
=1, If bit n is clear, b
n
=0
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
16
1
8
1
4
1
2
1
0 1 2 3 ref out
b b b b V V
For general n-Bit R-2R Ladder or Binary Weighted
Resister DAC
i
n
i
i n
b V V
2
1
1
ref out
=

=
For a 4-Bit R-2R Ladder
R R R
S F
2 = =
R/2R Ladder Digital-to-Analog Converters
Current division and analog output versus
digital input
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3. Inverted R-2R Ladder Digital-to-Analog
Converters

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R/2R Ladder Digital-to-Analog Converters
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Advantages
Only two resistor values
Does not need the kind of precision as Binary weighted
DACs
Easy to manufacture
Faster response time

Disadvantages
More confusing analysis
Monolithic/Hybrid Integrated-Circuit Digital-to-
Analog Converters
IC 1408 DAC block diagram and pin configuration
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Monolithic / Hybrid Integrated-Circuit Digital-to-Analog
Converters

IC 1408 DAC Application
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Important Electrical Characteristics for IC 1408:

1. Reference Current: 2mA
2. Supply Voltage: +5v (Vcc) & -15v (-VEE)
3. Setting Time: 300ns
4. Full Scale Output Current: 1.992mA
5. Accuracy: 0.19%
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Hybrid Integrated-Circuit Digital-to-
Analog Converters
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Analog to Digital Converters:

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ADC Basic Principle:
The basic principle of operation is to use the
comparator principle to determine whether or not
to turn on a particular bit of the binary number
output.
Where d1 is the most significant bit and dn is the
least significant bit.
An ADC usually has two additional control lines:
the START input to tell the ADC when to start the
conversion and the EOC (end of conversion)
output to announce when the conversion is
complete. Depending upon the type of
application, ADCs are designed for microprocessor
interfacing or to directly drive LCD or LED
displays.
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Different Types Of A/D Converter:

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Direct Type Integrating Type
Counter
type
converter
Tracking
or servo
converter
Successive
approximation
type converter
Parallel
comparator
(Flash) type
converter
Charge
balancing ADC
Dual slope
ADC
A/D Converter
Direct types ADCs compare a given analog signal with
the internally generated equivalent, signal.
Integrating type ADCs perform conversion in an
indirect manner by first changing the analog input
signal to a linear function of time or frequency and
then to a digital code.
The most commonly used ADCS are successive
approximation and the integrator type. The successive
approximation ADCs are used in applications such as
instrumentation where conversion speed is important.
The flash (comparator) type is expensive for high
degree of accuracy.
The integrating type converter is used in applications
such as digital meter and monitoring systems.
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1. Parallel Comparator (Flash) Analog-to-
Digital Converters
Also called simultaneous, multiple comparator, or flash
converting
Several comparators with different reference voltages
drive a priority encoder.
This is the simplest possible A/D converter. It is at the
same time, the fastest and most expensive technique.
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I. DIRECT TYPE ADCs:
Parallel Comparator Analog-to-Digital
Converters

Three-bit parallel
encoded ADC.
priority encoder.
Analog range of 0-7
V.
3 bit (8 level)
resolution (3-bit
priority encoder
(8 to 3)).
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Parallel Comparator A/D Converters
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Parallel Comparator A/D Converters
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The number of comparators required for n bit
resolution is ,
no.of comparators=
The maximum frequency for a sine wave Vin to be
digitised within accuracy if is,


Where
Maximum input frequency.
= Conversion Time.
n= no.of bits.

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1 2
n
LSB
( )
2
2
1
max
n
f
T
c
[
~
f
~ max
T
c
Parallel Comparator A/D Converters
Parallel Comparator A/D Converters
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Advantages
Very fast

Disadvantages
Needs many parts
(255 comparators
for 8-bit ADC)
Lower resolution
Expensive
Large power
consumption
2.Counter Type-Ramp Analog-to-Digital
Converters
Counter used in conjunction with a D/A converter
To change for continuous conversions end-of-
conversion line is tied back to clear input
Disadvantage is slow conversion time
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The Counter Type A/D converter
The Counter Type A/D converter
Operation of the Counter:
Initially, counter is reset then o/p is set to zero.
By applying reset pulse the digital i/p to DAC. DAC
is also zero then Vd is also zero.
When analog i/p voltage Va is applied to ADC then
Va>Vd. Then the comparator goes high value.
When the comparator o/p is high then it allows the
clock pulse through AND gate.
Then the counter starts the counting clock pulse.
The steps are continued till Vd is less than Va. Then
comparator o/p goes low then Vd> Va.
For a new value of analog input Va, a second reset
pulse is applied to clear the counter.


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Counter Type Analog-to-Digital Converters
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Disadvantage is slow conversion time.
Conversion time is not constant.
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The Counter Type A/D converter
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3.Tracking or servo A/D converter

Tracking or servo A/D converter
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Advantages
Simple

Disadvantages
Time needed to
stabilize as a new
conversion value.
4. Successive-Approximation Analog-to-
Digital Conversion
Most used in modern ADC ICs
Converter circuit is similar to counter-ramp
Uses successive approximation register to quickly
narrow in on the analog value
Result is a much faster conversion when compared
to the counter method.

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Successive-Approximation Analog-to-Digital
Conversion
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Successive-Approximation Analog-to-Digital
Conversion
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Successive-Approximation Analog-to-Digital
Conversion
Simplified SAR A/D converter
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comparator
Table 1 Voltage-level contributions by each successive
approximation register bit.
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Figure : Timing waveforms for a successive
approximation A/D conversion.
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Successive-Approximation Analog-to-
Digital Conversion


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Advantages

Capable of high
speed
Medium accuracy
compared to other
ADC types
Good tradeoff
between speed and
cost
Disadvantages

Higher resolution
successive
approximation ADCs
will be slower
Speed limited
~5Msps

II. Integrating Type of ADCs
1. Charge Balancing ADC:
The principle of charge balancing ADC is to first convert the
input signal to a frequency using a voltage to frequency (V/F)
converter.
This frequency is then measured by a counter and converted
to an output code proportional to the analog input.
The main advantage of these converters is that it is possible
to transmit frequency even in noisy environment or in
isolated form.
The limitation of the circuit is that the output of V/F
converter depends upon an RC product whose value cannot
be easily maintained with temperature and time.
The drawback of the charge balancing ADC is eliminated by
the dual slope conversion.
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2. Dual Slope ADC (Ramp Generator):


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The voltage v0 will be equal to v1 at the instant t2 and can be written as
Dual Slope ADC
Dual Slope ADC

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Advantages

Input signal is
averaged
Greater noise
immunity than other
ADC types
High accuracy
Disadvantages

Slow
High precision
external components
required to achieve
accuracy
Dual Slope ADC

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Dual Slope ADC
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DAC/ADC SPECIFICATIONS
Both D/A and A/D converters are available with
wide range of specifications:

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Resolution
Output Voltage Range
Accuracy
Setting Time or Conversion Time
Linearity
Stability
Quantization Error
For D/A Converters:
1.Resolution:
(a) A DAC that can provide number of different analog
output values is called resolution.
For a DAC having n-bits, Resolution=2
n
(or)
(b) A DAC is which the ratio of change in output voltage
resulting from a change of LSB (i.e. 1 least significant
bit) at the digital inputs is known as resolution.
Resolution for n-bit DAC is given by:

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1 2
Resol uti on
FS

=
n
V
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Example: Calculate the resolution of an 8-bit DAC.

Solution: Resolution = 8 bits



Percentage resolution =
% 391 . 0 % 100
255
1
% 100
1 2
1
8
= =

1 2
Resolution
FS

=
n
V
Digital to Analog Converters
-Performance Specifications
-Resolution
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Better Resolution(3 bit)
Poor Resolution(1 bit)
Vout
Desired Analog
signal
Approximate
output
2

V
o
l
t
.

L
e
v
e
l
s

Digital Input
0
0
1
Digital Input
Vout
Desired Analog
signal
Approximate
output
8

V
o
l
t
.

L
e
v
e
l
s

000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
110
101
100
011
010
001
000
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2. Output Voltage Range:

This is the difference between the maximum and
minimum output voltages expressed in volts.

Example:

Calculate the output voltage range of a 4-bit DAC if the
output voltage is +4.5V for an input of 0000 and +7.5V
for an input of 1111.

Solution:

Output voltage range = 7.5 4.5 = 3.0V

3. Accuracy:
It is defined as the difference between the
actual analog output and the expected analog
output when a given digital input is applied.

4.Linearity:
The linearity of an A/D or D/A converter is an
important measure of its accuracy and tells us
how close the converter output is to its ideal
transfer characteristics.


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Digital to Analog Converters
-Performance Specifications
-Linearity
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Linearity(Ideal Case)
Digital Input
Perfect Agreement
Desired/Approximate Output
A
n
a
l
o
g

O
u
t
p
u
t

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

NON-Linearity(Real World)
A
n
a
l
o
g

O
u
t
p
u
t

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

Digital Input
Desired Output
Miss-alignment
Approximate
output
For A/D Converters:
1.Resolution:
The resolution of an A/D converter is defined as
the smallest change in analog input for a one bit
change at the output.
As an example, the input range of an 8-bit AID
converter is divided into 255 intervals. So the
resolution for a 10 V input range is 39.22 mV (= 10
V/255).
2. Accuracy:
The accuracy of a given ADC i.e. analog to
digital converter determines the number of bits
which can be usefully provided.


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3. Quantization error:
Quantization error (or quantization noise) is the
difference between the original signal and the
digitized signal. Hence, the magnitude of the
quantization error at the sampling instant is
between zero and half of one LSB.
Quantization error is due to the finite resolution of
the digital representation of the signal, and is an
unavoidable imperfection in all types of ADCs.
In an ideal analog-to-digital converter, where the
quantization error is uniformly distributed
between 1/2 LSB and +1/2 LSB.

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( )
2
1 2
FS

=
n
E
V
Q
Common Specifications For Both A/D and D/A
Converters:
1.Conversion Time or Setting Time:
It is the time required for conversion of analog signal
into its digital equivalent. It is dependent on amplifiers
output and switches response time.
2.Monotonicity:
If a converter does not miss any step backward during
its entire range stepped by a counter then it is said to have a
counter having good monotonicity.
3. Stability:
The performance of converter changes with temperature,
age and power supply variations. So all the relevant parameters
such as offset, gain, linearity error and monotonicity must be
specified over the full temperature and power supply ranges.
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Summary
Any analog quantity can be represented by a
binary number. Longer binary numbers
provide higher resolution, which gives a more
accurate representation of the analog quantity.
The binary-weighted D/A converter is the
simplest to construct, but it has practical
limitations in resolution (number of input bits).
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Summary
Operational amplifiers are important building
blocks in analog-to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-
analog (D/A) converters. They provide a means
for summing currents at the input and
converting a current to a voltage at the output
of converter circuits.
The R/2R ladder D/A converter uses only two
different resistor values, no matter how many
binary input bits are included. This allows for
very high resolution and ease of fabrication in
integrated-circuit form.
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Summary
The DAC0808 (or MC1408) IC is an 8-bit D/A
converter that uses the R/2R ladder method of
conversion. It accepts 8 binary input bits and
outputs an equivalent analog current. Having 8
input bits means that it can resolve up to 256
unique binary values into equivalent analog values.
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Summary
Applying an 8-bit counter to the input of an 8-bit
D/A converter will produce a 256-step sawtooth
waveform at its output.
The simplest way to build an analog-to-digital
(A/D) converter is to use the parallel encoding
method. The disadvantage is that it is practical
only for low-resolution applications.
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Summary
The counter-ramp A/D converter employs a
counter, a D/A converter, and a comparator to
make its conversion. The counter counts from
zero up to a value that causes the D/A output to
exceed the analog input value slightly. That binary
count is then output as the equivalent to the
analog input.
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Summary
The method of A/D conversion used most often
is called successive approximation. In this
method, successive bits are tested to see if they
contribute an equivalent analog value that is
greater than the analog input to be converted.
If they do, they are returned to zero. After all
bits are tested, the ones that are left ON are
used as the final digital equivalent to the analog
input.
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Thank You
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