Textile Technology Introduction to Textile Fibre Materials

Fibers Any hair like delicate material having length breadth ratio of 1:100 and should have some characteristics or properties. OR Units of matter characterized by flexibility and fineness, having ratio of length to thickness

Main types of fibers

Natural fibers Man made fibers

Natural fibres

Man-made fibres

Cotton Wool Silk Linen .

Polyester Polyamide Polyacrylonitrile Polypropylene Polylactic acid

Synthetic fibres or (inorganic fibers)

xxx based on oil

xxx based on renewable resources

Viscose
Acetate Triacetate
Regenerated fibres or Natural polymer fibers

Natural

Classification of Textile Fibers

Man-Made
Vegetable Synthetic Polymer Natural Polymer

Textile Fiber

Animal

Wool (Sheep)

Seed (Cotton)

Polyamide (Nylon)

Regenerated Cellulosic

Hair (Camel, Cow, Rabbit [Angora], Goat [Mohair, Cashmere])

Leaf (Manila)

Polyester

Viscose

Silk

Bast (Flax, Jute)

Polyurethane (Elastane, Spandex, Lycra)

Modal

Polyvinyl Derivatives

Lyocell (Tencel)

Acrylic

Cellulose Ester

Modacrylic

Acetate

Polyolefin

Triacetate

Polyethelene

Polypropylene

FIBRE PROPERTIES

 Fibre properties contributes to the properties of the fabric.

Fibres influences
Durability Comfort Aesthetics Appearance retention Care required for fabric Cost

 Use of Strong fibres results in a durable fabric Absorbent fibres are good for skin contact apparel and for towels and diapers

Flame retardant fibres are good for children sleepwear and protective clothing.

 Fibre properties resulting from Low Moisture Absorbency

Static Build-up Quick Drying Difficult for Dyer to Colour Poor Skin-comfort Clammy/Sticky Prevents Evaporation of Perspiration Dimensionally Stable to Water Good wrinkle recovery when laundered Resin finishes are not absorbed

 Successful textile fibres should be

Readily available Constantly in supply Cost effective

They must have

Sufficient strength: ability to resist stress & strain Pliability / flexibility Length: must be equal to 5mm or more cohesiveness (ability to cling together) to be spun into yarns

Man-made Fibres
What advantages do they have ? High regularity / uniformity Cheap raw materials Large-Scale economic production Control of fibre properties Introduction of different fibre variants Production at desired locations (best economics) manpower transport expertise raw materials

Fibre Properties are determined by

the nature of their physical structure, chemical composition, and molecular arrangement.

Physical Properties of Fibres

Fibre Length
Fibres are sold in the form of
Staple fibres Filaments yarn made from filaments are of two types. 1) Multi-filament: yarn made of number of tiny filaments twisted together. 2) Mono-filament: yarn composed of single solid strand of great strength.

Staple fibres vary in length from 2 to 46 cm All natural fibres except silk are available only in staple form

 Filaments are long continuous fibre strands of indefinite length, measured in yards or metres. Filaments may be smooth or bulked (crimped).

Smooth filaments are used to make silk-like fabrics

Bulk filaments are used in more cotton-like or woollike fabrics

Fibre physical dimensions / shape / form ? Length

longitudinal property

Natural fibres harvested with different average lengths depends on source cotton (0.6-6 centimetres) wool (3-30 centimetres) silk (infinite) called Continuous Filament Non-continuous filaments called Staple measure average Staple length measure Staple length distribution Man-made fibres can be produced with any desired length distribution varied by different cutting methods can be kept in Continuous Filament form

Natural and Man-made Staple Fibre

Fibre Size
Fibre thickness determines the performance and hand of the fabric.
Thick fibres give
Roughness Body Stiffness Resistance to crushing (property important for articles like carpets)

Fine Fibres give

Softness Pliability (better drape)

 Natural fibres are subject to growth irregularities and hence are not uniform in size.
In natural fibres, fineness is a major factor in determining quality. In manufactured fibres the thickness of the filaments is controlled by
The size of the spinneret holes The extent of drawing during or after the spinning process Controlling the rate of extrusion of the spinning solution

Fibre Crimp
Natural fibres are wavy - not perfectly straight Wool Cotton Man-made fibres - highly crimped - moderately crimped - processing machinery allows different levels of crimp

Fibre Crimp

% Crimp = 100 x extended - relaxed

relaxed Extended length Relaxed length

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Crimp frequency = number of crimps per unit length

Fibre Crimp
Crimp in fibre refers to the waves, bends, twists, coils or curls along the length of the fabric.
Fibre crimp increases
Cohesiveness Resiliency (recover from deformation over time period) Resistance to abrasion Stretch Bulk Warmth Absorbency Next to skin comfort

However, crimp reduces lustre. Inherent crimp occurs in wool.

Cross-Sectional Shape
Shape controls Lustre Bulk Body Texture Hand or feel of the fabric
Figure 1.1 shows typical cross-sectional shapes which may be

 Figure 1.1 shows typical cross-sectional shapes which may be

Round Dog-bone Triangular Tri-lobal Bean-shaped Flat Strawlike

The shape of natural fibres can not be changed easily and slight alterations can only be possible through genetic modification of the crop. The shape of Man made fibres is controlled by the shape of the spinneret holes.

Fibre cross-sectional shape ?

lateral property

Natural fibres usually have irregular sectional shapes cotton collapsed tube silk moon or triangular Man-made fibres may also have irregular sectional shapes due to complexities of fibre formation acrylics kidney / bean viscose crenulated
Man-made fibres can be produced with different sections trilobal hollow tube flat Must be characterised by microscopy

Cross-sectional SEM images of fibres

Is it correct to compare these fibres ?

Fibre Surface
The fibre surface can be smooth, serrated or rough.
Fibre surface influence
lustre handle texture

Fibre Mechanical properties Tensile Properties - Important way of comparing fibres

longitudinal property

Apply weight Force to fibre - Load

Fibre increases in length - Extension

E L
Kg

Greater extension at higher force

Until fibre breaks !!

Stress/strain diagram

Breaking Stress = Strength / Tenacity

Stress
(cN/tex)

Initial Modulus

Yield stress

(cN = centi-Newtons)
1N/tex=11.3g/den

Strain

(%)

Final Extensibility

Stress/strain diagram

Stress
(cN/tex)

Area = Toughness (mN/tex)

Strain
(cN = centi-Newtons)

(%)

Final Extensibility

Initial Modulus Ability to accept load without extending - stiffness High modulus - good dimensional stability Can lead to brittlenss Tenacity Ultimate load-carrying capability of fibre Permanent deformation at high extensions Fibre may slowly fail at lower loads

Extensibility Ability of fibre to absorb energy due to load High extensibility + high tenacity give Toughness Withstand sudden big shocks
Elastic Recovery

Recovery from loading

dimensional stability Associated with wear durability

Stress (cN/tex) 70 aramid 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 5 10 flax

Typical fibre stress-strain diagrams polypropylene

polyester staple

cotton

silk

nylon staple acrylic cellulose acetate wool

viscose

15

20 25 Strain (%)

30

35

40

Table of typical tensile properties of textile fibres

fibre tenacity Extension toughness initial % Recovery at break modulus at 5% strain

cN/tex
cotton

% 7

mN/tex 15

N/tex 5 52

36

flax
viscose silk Polyester Nylon

54
25 38 47 38

3
17 23 37 43

8
19 60 119 101

18
6.5 7 9 2

32 52 65 89

wool aramid
polyprop Acrylic Cell acetate

13 200
65 27 13

43 3
17 30 24

32 40
71 47 22

2.5 60
7 6 3.5

69 90 50 46

Moisture uptake of Fibres

20oC 65% RH

100oC

% Moisture Regain = 100 x Ambient weight- dry weight dry weight

Measure of Hydrophilicity

Standard moisture regain of different fibres fibre cotton flax viscose cell acetate silk wool nylon % Moisture regain at 65% RH at 20oC

7.5 7 13 7 10 17
4

hydrophilic

acrylic
polyester polyprop

2
0.4 0.1

hydrophobic

Regain (wt%) 30 25

Typical regain-humidity relationships for textile fibres

viscose wool

20 15 10 5 acrylic 0

cotton
silk

acetate

nylon
polyester

20

40

60 80 Humidity (%)

100

Influence of Moisture on Tensile Properties of Wool Stress (cN/tex) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 % strain 40 50 60 0

10 30
100% humidity

wool

Polymers and Fibre Structure

Polymer Fiber molecules are called polymers. Polymers are large molecules made up of many smaller molecules with small repeating units called monomers.
Monomers are usually reactive whereas polymers tend to be nonreactive. Long-chain molecule - Macromolecule

Degree of polymerisation
n = number of repeat units n = 50-50000

Identical units repeat structure End-groups Side groups

H ( CH2-CH ) CH3 n CH3

Degree of polymerization measuring the length of polymer is complicated. Only estimated length can be calculated by determining its DOP. (DOP of cotton is 5000) DOP = Molecular wgt. of a polymer / molecular wgt. of one unit. Long-chain molecule Macromolecule Arrangement of Molecule chains long chain molecules are essential for fiber strength and the fiber with short molecular chain will have less strength than longer molecular chain fiber. Molecular structure of fiber the properties of fiber are not only dependent on individual chains but also on the way these chains pack together. When molecular chains are randomly arranged, the structure is said to be Amorphous. A very regular arrangement of chains, in contrast to amorphous structure is Crystalline.

Molecular orientation alignment of molecular chain parallel to the fiber axis. (both flax and ramie have high degree of orientation) - Vegetable fibers are made of cellulose polymers and animal fibers are made of protein polymers.

Types of Polymer
Homo-polymers containing only one type of monomer or polymerized from the same one repeating unit. E.g., Nylon 6, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride. Co-polymers A polymer formed from two or more different monomers. Wool, for example, which is made up of 18 different molecules.

 Fibres with similar chemical compositions are placed in the same generic group.
Molecular chains have different configuration in fibres. When molecular chains are arranged in a random or disorganised way within the fibre, they form Amorphous regions.

When the molecular chains are parallel to each other or arranged in an organised fashion, they form Crystalline regions. Molecular chains that are parallel to each other and to the lengthwise axis of the fibre are Oriented.

 Fibres that are highly oriented must also be highly crystalline. However, highly crystalline fibres are not necessarily highly oriented. Fibres vary in their proportion of oriented, crystalline, and amorphous regions.

Polymers in manufactured fibres are in a random, un-oriented state when extruded from the spinneret.
Stretching or Drawing stage
Increases their crystallinity Increases orientation Reduces filament diameter Packs the molecules together.

 Fibre properties affected by crystallinity and orientation include

Strength Elongation Moisture absorption Abrasion resistance Dyeability

 Amorphous fibres
are relatively weak easily elongated good moisture absorbency good dyeability good flexibility poor elasticity

Examples of amorphous fibres include wool and rayon.

Oriented and crystalline fibres are

strong stiff difficult to elongate good elasticity non-absorbent difficult to dye

Examples include polyester, nylon and aramid fibres

Polymer Sources
Natural Polymers in Natural fibres

Cellulose Keratin Fibroin

fibrous plants hair silk

Natural Polymers in Man-made fibres

Cellulose Chitin Alginate

wood-pulp, cotton linters shells seaweed

Polymer Sources

Synthetic polymers from oil/coal/gas (mineral) feed-stocks

Polypropylene (PP) Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Nylon

Synthetic polymers from natural feed-stocks Polylactic acid (PLA) made by corn (Dextrose)

Polymer repeat units - Natural Polymers

cellulose
OH CH2 CH2 NH C O n NH CH2 CH2 C NH CH CH2 C n n O O

fibroin

Polymer repeat units - Synthetic polymers Nylon-6

NH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 C O
*

Polyacrylonitrile (acrylic polymer)

CH2 CH C N

Polyester (PET)

* O C O

C O CH2 CH2 * n O
*

polypropylene

CH2 CH CH3

Manufacture of Natural Polymers

assembled by enzyme reactions cotton - transport through lumen wool - growth in hair follicle

Manufacture of synthetic polymers Step-Growth polymerisation (Polyethylene terephthalate)

monomers reactive

condensation

Chain-Growth polymerisation (polyacrylonitrile)

growing end reactive

addition

Same result depends on ease of chemistry

Polymer crystallisation
Polymer chains can pack together in highly regular 3 dimensional arrangements Without crystallisation chains are disorganised or disordered

Crystalline Domains

Amorphous Domains

Usually polymer solids have mix of crystalline and amorphous domains - semicrystalline

Thermal processing
Softening (amorphous)
Glass-rubber Transition (Tg)

Melting (Crystalline)

rigid

Plastic

Melt

Polymers can be processed in plastic or melt states reached by raising temperature

Solution processing

plasticisation (amorphous)

dissolving (crystalline + amorphous)

rigid
plastic Polymers can be solution

processed in plasticised or solution states reached by mixing with solvent

Formation of Man-Made Fibres solid

Raw polymer material

dissolving or melting fluid Extrusion and drawing Re-solidification Hot or cold drawing solid fibre

Fibre production

Fibre Extrusion
Narrow hole spinneret (jet)

Filaments drawn from spinneret

Filament diameter is reduced Fibre solidified by

slow

diameter

cooling precipitation evaporation

Jet-drawing may give fast

Polymer orientation

Fibre solidification technologies

melt solution
solution

evaporation

cooling

precipitation

Melt spinning
Polymer cooled to become solid

Dry spinning
Volatile solvent blown away in spin-tube

Wet spinning (solution spinning)

Solvent washed away in spin-bath

Fibre Drawing
Many fibres cannot be oriented easily by jet-drawing Need to apply post-draw

slow

fast

Polymer Orientation

Polymer orientation
Promotes

Crystallisation
Crystals are strong and stiff

act as ties between

disordered polymer regions In fibre

Fibre orientation gives big improvement in tensile properties

Higher degree of polymerisation gives stronger, tougher fibre

Low Molecular Weight

Chains pull apart

High Molecular Weight

Polymer organisation and tensile properties

Stress-strain diagram stress Control of properties of man-made fibres

Increasing crystallinity or molecular weight

Increasing orientation

strain

O-H and N-H functional groups attract water

Water- polymer hydrogen bonding cellulose

O H
Chemical explanation for Hydrophilicity

presence of water reduces static electricity

Plasticisation for fibre and textile processing

heat
(Tg)

cool

dry solvent (water)

Plastic state

setting