Motivation Theories

Motivation
Motivation is derived from Latin word movere which means to move a process that starts with physiological or psychological deficiency or need that activates a behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal or incentive. (Luthans:1998). The process that account for an individuals intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. (Robbins)

Concept of Motivation
A need must be felt by an individual in such a way that it drives him/her to satisfy it. The force underlying this behaviour may be called motivation. This force may vary depending upon the intensity and importance of the need to the individual.

Contd.
Peoples behaviour is determined by what motivates them. Their performance is a product of both ability level and motivation.
Needs: a physiological or psychological imbalance leads to the creation of a need Drives/motives: propel individual to attain their goals or satisfy their needs. Incentives: that can fulfill a need and decrease the intensity of a drive is

Basic Motivational Model

(Mullins:1996)

Needs or result in expectations

Driving Force to achieve (behaviour or action)

Desired Goals

feedback
Fulfillment

which provide

Types of Motivation Theories

Content Theories Process Theories

Content Theories
These theories attempt to explain those specific things which actually motivate the individual at work. These theories are concerned with identifying peoples needs and their relative strengths, and the goals they pursue in order to satisfy these needs. Content theories place emphasis on what motivates human behaviour i.e. the wants and needs that people are trying to satisfy.

Process Theories
These theories attempt to identify the relationship among the dynamic variables which make up motivation. They are concerned more with how behaviors are initiated, directed and sustained. Process theories place emphasis on the actual process of motivation, looking at how the

Content Models
The Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow:1943). The ERG Theory (Alderfer:1972). The Acquired Needs Theory/Achievement Motivation Theory(McClelland:1961). The Dual-Factor Theory (Herzberg:1968).

Process Models
Theory X, Theory Y (McGregor:1960) Expectancy Theory (Vroom:1964 and Porter & Lawler:1968) Equity Theory (Adams:1965)

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Basic proposition is that people are wanting beings, they always want more, and what they want depends on what they already have. Hierarchy ranges through 5 levels and is displayed in the form of a pyramid implying a thinning out of needs as people progress up the hierarchy. Ascending order implies that it is the next unachieved level that acts as

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Self actualisation Realisation of full potential.

Esteem Ego needs.

Love Social needs.

Social and civilisational needs.

Safety Protection and security needs.

Basic and instinctive needs.

Physiological Basic needs.

Alderfers ERG Theory

This is a modified need hierarchy model and it condenses Maslows five levels of need into only three levels based on the core needs of:
Existence Relatedness Growth

Alderfers ERG Theory

Existence

Relatedness

Growth

Physiological and material needs.

Social, interpersonal and friendship needs. Personal growth, development, self-respect.

Alderfers ERG Theory

Existence needs are concerned with sustaining human existence and survival and cover physiological and safety needs of a material nature. Relatedness needs are concerned with relationships to the social environment and cover love or belonging, affiliation and meaningful interpersonal relations of a safety or esteem nature.

Alderfers ERG Model

Growth needs are concerned with the development of potential and cover self-esteem and selfactualization. The theory propounds that
a) The lower order needs must be satisfied to move on to higher order needs (satisfaction progressions in process) The frustration of higher order needs the person can go back to lower order needs ( frustration regression process) All three needs can operate simultaneously.

b)

c)

Herzbergs Dual-Factor Theory

Herzbergs original study consisted of interviews with 203 accountants and engineers. The object of the research being to design jobs that provided job satisfaction, thereby encouraging higher levels of performance. This process developed into job enrichment.

Herzbergs Dual Factor Theory

Hygience or Maintenance Factors Salary Job Security Working Conditions Level and Quality of Supervision Company Policy and Administration Interpersonal Relations

The Dissatisfiers

MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION

Herzbergs Dual Factor Theory cont.

MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION The Satisfiers

Sense of Achievement Recognition Responsibility Nature of the Work Personal Growth and Advancement

Motivators or Growth Factors

Hygiene or Maintenance Factors (Herzberg)

These are the factors, which if absent, cause dissatisfaction. They are related to the job context and concerned with the job environment. They serve to prevent dissatisfaction. They act as a platform upon with the satisfaction factors can be built.

Motivators or Growth Factors (Herzberg)

These factors, if present, serve to motivate the individual to superior effort and performance. These factors are related to the job content of the work itself. The strength of these factors will affect feelings of satisfaction or no satisfaction, but not dissatisfaction.

McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory

McClelland identified different motivational categories of people and if you could identify which category a person fell into it would help establish which patterns of motivation would lead to effective performance and success at work.

McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory

Three motives identified by McClelland:
Need for Achievement Need for Power Need for Affiliation

1. Need for Achievement

The need for achievement is the desire to consistently want challenging tasks demanding responsibility and application. McClelland sees this need as the most critical for the organisations growth and success. This need is linked to entrepreneurial spirit and the development of available resources.

2. Need for Power

The need for power is directed to the manager working for an organisation that is concerned with group goals and the power is exercised on behalf of other people, this is socialised power and should be distinguished from personalised power which is characterised by satisfaction from exercising dominance over other people.

3. Need for Affiliation

This is the need for good social and personal relations with people. It is related to Maslow social needs the need to belong. If an individual does not experience any sense of belonging within the organisation they will not be motivated to perform well. .

McGregors Theory X, Theory Y

McGregor put forward two suppositions about human nature and behaviour at work. He argues that the style of management adopted is a function of the managers attitudes towards people and assumptions about human nature and behaviour.

Theory X (McGregor)
Theory X represents the assumptions on which traditional organisations are based, and was widely accepted and practiced before the development of the human relations approach. The central principle is direction and control through a centralised system of organisation and the exercise of authority.

Theory X Assumptions
The average person is lazy and has an inherent dislike of work. Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment if the organisation is to achieve its objectives. The average person avoids responsibility, prefers to be directed, lacks ambition and values security most of all. Motivation occurs only at the physiological and security levels.

Theory Y (McGregor)
Theory Y represents the assumptions consistent with current research knowledge. The central principle is the integration of the individual and organisation goals. It is recognised as the best way to elicit co-operation from workers.

Theory Y Assumptions
For most people work is as natural as play or rest. People will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are committed. Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards associated with their achievement.

Theory Y Assumptions

cont.

Given the right conditions the average worker can learn to accept and to seek responsibility. The capacity for creativity in solving organisational problems is distributed. The intellectual potential of the average person is only partially utilised. Motivation occurs at all of Maslows

Expectancy Theory
Vrooms expectancy theory(1964) maintains that employees behave in ways they expect will produce positive outcomes. The model suggest that the persons level of effort or force (motivation) is not simply a function of rewards. It is a measure of the strength of a particular outcome has for the individual.

Expectancy Theory
Vrooms expectancy theory is:
F = Sum (E * V) where,
F = Force - the motivation or the force used to achieve it. E = Expectancy - the possibility of achieving a certain outcome through certain actions. V = Valency - the preference an individual has for a particular outcome, the worth placed on a particular result.

Expectancy Theory
Porter and Lawler (1968) develop Vrooms expectancy theory by suggesting that there are two factors determining the effort people put into their jobs.
The value of the reward to individuals in so far as they satisfy their need for security, social esteem, autonomy and self-actualization.

Expectancy Theory
The probability that reward depends on effort, as perceived by individuals - in other words their expectations of the relationship between effort and reward.

Thus the greater the value of a set of rewards and the higher the probability that receiving each of these rewards depends upon effort, the greater the effort that will be made in a given situation.

Adams Equity Theory

Equity theory focuses on peoples feelings of how fairly they feel they have been treated in comparison with the treatment received by others. It is based on exchange theory. People expect certain outcomes in exchange for certain inputs or contributions.

Adams Equity Theory

Adams states that people will be better motivated if they are treated equitably. The exchange variables are:
Inputs - what the individual brings to their employment in terms of effort, experience and skills. Outcomes - the range of factors the employee receives in return for their inputs i.e. all the financial and nonfinancial rewards.