MPF1213 INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION

MARKING AND REPORTING

BY LECTURER

: :

NOZIEYANA A.RAHMAN(MP101336) NOR SAHIDAH MOHAMAD ALI(MP121197) DR HAMIMAH BINTI ABU NAIM

A.Purpose of marking and reporting

-The task of reporting students progress cannot be separate from the procedures used in assessing students learning and development -- grading and reporting become a matter of summarizing the results and presenting them in understandable form and variety of users( students, parents,teachers, councelors and administrators)

B.FUNCTIONS OF MARKING AND REPORTING SYSTEMS

1) Instructional uses 2) Reports to parents 3) Administrative and guidance uses

Function of marking and reporting system

1) INSTRUCTIONAL USES -the focus of the grading and reporting system should be improvement of student learning and development. -This is most likely to occur when the report: -a) clarifies the instructional objectives -b) indicates the students strengths and weaknesses in learning. -c) provides information concerning the students personal-social development - d) contributes to the students motivation

Function of marking and reporting system

1) INSTRUCTIONAL USES cont

-A portfolio of work designed to display progress can show the strides that have been made during the year with concrete example. -- A well designed report form together with portfolio of students work that contains carefully selected example can provide this summary of learning progress. -- Well-designed progress reports can also aid in evaluating instructional procedures by identifying areas needing revision. -- need to modify instructional objectives or the classroom activities when student report meet poor learning progress.

Function of marking and reporting system

2) REPORTS TO PARENTS/GUARDIANS
-These reports should help parents understand the objectives of the school and how well their children are achieving the intended learning outcomes. -- the importance of report to parents/guardians: -1) parents are better able to cooperate with school in promoting their childrens learning and development. -2) enable parents to give them the emotional support and encouragement needed. -3) knowing their childrens strenght and weaknesses in learning.

Function of marking and reporting system

3) ADMINISTRATIVE AND GUIDANCE USES

-Grades and progress reports serve a number of administrative functions.They are use for:

-1) determining promotion and graduation -2) awarding honor -3) determining athletic eligibility -4) reporting to other schools and prospective employers

C.TYPES OF MARKING AND REPORTING SYSTEMS

1) Traditional Letter-Grade System 2) Pass Fail System 3) Checklists of Objectives 4) Letter to Parents/Guardians 5) Portfolio of Student Work 6) Parent-Teacher Conference

Types of marking and reporting system

1) TRADITIONAL LETTER-GRADE SYSTEM

-Is to assign a single letter grade such as A,B,C,D,F) for each subject. -In some cases a single number ( 5,4,3,2,1 or 100 ,95,90) is used instead of a letter, but the grading system is essentially the same. -the grades are easily averaged and useful in predicting future achievement

Types of marking and reporting system

1) TRADITIONAL LETTER-GRADE SYSTEM cont.

-However ,they have several limitation: -a) Typically are a combination of achievement, effort, work habits,good behavior. -b) the proportion of students assigned each letter grade varies from teacher to teacher. -c) they do not indicate a students specific strenghts and weaknesses in learning. -They difficult to interpret and use. -Example : A grade of C may represent good achievement but poor work habits and disruptive behavior.

Types of marking and reporting system

2) PASS-FAILED SYSTEM
-Two category system example: satisfactoryunsatisfactory and pass-fail) has been used in some elementary school. - strength of this system are: -- it permit students to take some courses(elective course) --to encourage students to explore new areas. --permit students to focus on those aspect of course that related most directly to their major field. -- to neglect those areas of little interest or relevance --removing the fear of a lower grade-point average gives student greater freedom to select their learning experience

Types of marking and reporting system

2) PASS-FAILED SYSTEM cont.

Limitation of pass-fail system are: -- offers less information --provides no indication of the level of learning. -- value for predicting future or describing present performance achievement is lost.
-

Types of marking and reporting system

3) CHECKLIST OF OBJECTIVES
-Some schools have replaced the traditional grading system with a list of objectives to be checked or rated. --these reports typically include ratings of progress towards the major objectives in each subject-matter area. -- The following statements for reading and arithmetic illustrate the nature of these report: -Reading: -1) reads with understand -2) works out meaning and use of new words -3) reads well to others

-4) reads independently for pleasure.

Types of marking and reporting system

3) CHECKLIST OF OBJECTIVES cont

-Arithmetic: -1) uses fundamental processes -2) solves problems involving reasoning -3) is accurate in work -4) work at a satisfactory rate. -- commonly use fewer symbols such as O(outstanding) , S (satisfactory) , N (needs improvement) or P(proficient) , PP(partially proficient)

Types of marking and reporting system

3) CHECKLIST OF OBJECTIVES cont

-the strengths of checklist of objectives are: --the checklist form of reporting has the advantage of providing a detailed analysis of the students strength and weaknesses. --provide students, parents and others with a frequent reminder of the objectives of the school. -The limitations are: -difficulties in keeping the list of statement down to a workable number and in stating them in such simple and concise terms that they are readily understood by all users of the report.

Types of marking and reporting system

4) LETTERS TO PARENTS/ GUARDIANS

-Use of letters to provide for greater flexibility in reporting students progress to parent. -It possible to report on unique strengths, weaknesses, learning needs and suggestion of specific plans of improvement. -But limited to several factors: -1) comprehensive and thoughtful written reports require an excessive amount of time and skill -2) students learning weaknesses are easily misinterpreted by parents -3) fail to provide a systematic and cumulative record of student progress towards the objectives of school.

Types of marking and reporting system

5) PORTFOLIO OF STUDENT WORK -an effective of showing student progress, illustrating

strength, and identifying areas where greater effort is needed. -Also an effective means of making grades more concrete for parents and guardian. --simply file which student work products are placed. -The entries in the portfolio need to be selected to illustrate the range of student work. -Example: types of writing,mathematical problem or result of laboratory experiments.

Types of marking and reporting system

6) PARENT-TEACHER CONFERENCES
-This reporting method is most widely used at the elementary level. -Parent-teacher conference is a flexible procedure that provides for two way communication(home-school) -- parents have an opportunity to present information concerning the students out-of-school life. --useful tool but there are limitations: -1) time and skill -2) not provide a systematic record of student progress -3) some parents are unwilling to come for conference

MULTIPLE GRADING AND REPORTING SYSTEM

- The typical multiple system retains the use of traditional grading(letter grade or number) and supplement the grades with checklist of objectives. - An example report form using the multiple grading and reporting system shown in figure 15.1

Guidelines for developing a multiple grading and reporting system: 1) The development of the grading and reporting system should be guided by the function to be serve. 2) The grading and reporting system should be developed cooperatively by parents , students and school personnel. 3) Should be based on a clear statement of educations objectives 4) Should be consistent with school standards 5) Should be based on adequate assessment 6) Should be detailed enough to be diagnostic and yet compact enough to be practical 7) Should provide for parent-teacher conferences as needed.

GRADING AND REPORTING

1)Instructional uses 2) Report to parents/guardian 3) Administrative and guidance uses
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Traditional letter-grade system Pass-fail system Checklist of objectives Advantages Letter to parents & Portfolio of student work Parent-teacher conferences limitations Multiple grading and reporting system

THE PURPOSE

TYPES OF GRADING AND REPORTING

Development of a Grading and Reporting System

1. Based on clear statement of learning objectives 2. Consistent with school standards 3. Based on adequate assessment 4. Based on the right level of detail 5. Providing for parent-teacher conferences as needed

Assigning Letter Grades

Properly weight each component to create a composite Put all components on same scale to weight properly Involves questions such as the following :
1. What should be included in a letter grade? 2. How should achievement data be combined in assigning letter grades? 3. What frame of reference should be used in grading? 4. How should the distribution of letter grades be determined

Determining What To Include In A Grade If letter grades are to serve as valid indicators of achievement, they must be based on valid measures of achievement.
The process of grading involve :
Defining the course objectives as intended learning outcomes Developing or selecting tests and other evaluation devices that measure these outcomes most directly

Determining What To Include In A Grade

How much emphasis should be given to tests, ratings, written reports, and other measures of achievement in the letter grades is determined by the nature of the course and the objectives being stressed. Types of evaluation data to include in a course grade and the relative emphasis to be given to each type of evidence are determined primarily by examining the instructional objectives The more important the objective is, the greater the weight it should receive in the course grade. In final analysis, letter grades should reflect the extend to which pupils have achieved the learning outcomes specified in the course objectives. These should be weighted according to their relative importance.

Combining data in assigning grades

Standard deviation as Make possible score the same for both sets the measure of of scores variability The range is satisfactory for most classroom purpose Multiplying the scores on the term report by 2, so that the top score on both measures would equal 100. This procedure does not equate the scores We can see even larger difference between the two composite scores. This due to the fact that the influence each component has on the composite score depends on variability, or spread, of scores and not on the total number of points Combine various elements so that each element receiveds its intended weight Combining the element into a composite score by assigning appropriate weights to each element and use these composite scores as a basis for grading Add together the final examination score and the term report score for each pupil Check the effectiveness by comparing the composite score of a pupil who is the highest on the final examination and lowest on the term report (100+10=110) with a pupil who is lowest on the final examination and highest on the term report (80+50)=130

Converting all sets of scores to stanines Standard score, 1 through 9 All scores that have been converted to the stanine system, the scores in each set have the same variability. Then weighted by simply multiplying each stanine score by the desired weight.

Selecting The Proper Frame of Reference For Grading

Letter grades are typically assigned on the basis of one of the following frame reference:

Relative Grading

Learning Ability @ Amount of Improvement

Proper Frame Reference for Grading

Absolute Grading

RELATIVE GRADING

Comparing a pupils performance with that of a reference group

Grade is determined by the pupils relative ranking in the total group

Grading is based on relative performance

The grade influenced by both the pupils performance and the performance of the group

Widely used in the schools, because much of classroom testing is norm referenced.

Disadvantage : Shifting frame of reference (e.g., grade depend on the group ability)

ABSOLUTE GRADING
Standard concerned with the degree of mastery to be achieved by the pupils and may be specified as (1) Task to be performed (2) The percentage of correct answer to be obtained on a test designed to measure a clearly defined set of learning tasks

Comparing a pupils performance to prespecified standards set by the teacher

Letter grade are assigned on the basis of an absolute standard of performance rather than a relative one

Percentage-correct score, which are widely used in setting absolute standards, are most meaningful in mastery learning because they indicate how far a pupil is from complete mastery (e.g; A= 95-100, B=85-94, C=75-84, D=65-74, F=below 65) Domain of learning task has not been clearly defined and the standards have been set in a completely arbitary manner.

To uses absolute level of achievement as a basis for grading requires: 1) The domain of learning tasks be clearly defined 2) The standards of performance be clearly specified and justified 3) The measures of pupil achievement be criterion referenced.

LEARNING ABILITY @ AMOUNT OF IMPROVEMENT

Improvement (i.e; growth in achievement) over shorrt spans of time is extremely difficult to estimate reliably with classroom measures of acievement. The lack of reliability injudging achievement in relation to ability and in judging degree of improvement, will result in grades of low dependability

Judgement and measurement of ability are likely to be contaminated by achievement to some unknown degree.

If used all (e.g; to motivate low-ability pupils), such grades should be used as supplementary. In dual marking, for example, one letter grade miight indicate level of achievement (relative or absolute), and the second letter grade might be used to represent achievement in relation to ability, or the degree of improvement shown since the last marking period.

Determining the Distribution of Grades

Relative Grading Relative grading is based on two assumptions: (1) one of the purposes of grading is to identify students who perform best against their peers and to weed out the unworthy/ (2) student performance more or less follows a normal distribution the famous bell-shaped curve.

Determining the Distribution of Grades

Relative Grading
School staff set general guidelines for the approximate distributions of marks. Might involve separate distributions for introductory and advanced courses, for gifted and slow learning classes, and the like. Distribution should be flexible enough to allow for variation in the caliber of pupils from one course to another and from one time to another in the same course. Indicating ranges rather than fixed percentages of pupils who should receive each letter grade offers this flexibility. E.g : A= 10-20 percent of pupils, B= 20-30 percent of pupils, C= 30-50 percent of pupils, D=10-20 percent of pupils, F=0-10 percent of pupils

Grading on the curve

Gap method

Relative Grading System

Standard deviation method

Grading On Curve
The use of the normal curve as a grading model is based on the discovery, earlier in this century, that IQ test scores over large populations approximate a normal distribution.
The larger the class, the more likely that student performance will begin to look something like a normal curve, the assumption that performance is normally distributed is usually unjustified, even in large sections.

Standard deviation method

In this system student grades are based on their distance from the mean score for the class rather than on an arbitrary scale. To calculate the standard deviation, the teacher creates a frequency distribution of the final scores and identifies the mean (average) score. Using the formula in Figure 2, the standard deviation is computed so that cutoff points for each grade level can be determined

Gap method
Students total course scores are arranged in ascending order and the teacher looks for naturally-occurring gaps in the distribution of the scores.
Unfortunately, the gaps may not reflect real achievement differences but simply chance occurrence, and they may not appear at reasonable points in the distribution. The primary advantage of the gap system is that there are fewer complaints about borderline grades, since students are unsophisticated about grading systems and will likely accept the gaps as proof of significant differences in performance.

Determining the Distribution of Grades

Absolute Grading
Based on the idea that grades should reflect mastery of specific knowledge and skills. The teacher sets the criteria for each grade, and all students who perform at a given level receive the same grade. This grading includes delimiting the domain of learning tasks to be achieved, defining the instructional objectives in performance terms, specifying the standard of performance to be attained and measuring the intended outcomes with criterion-referenced instruments.

 The letter grades in an absolute system may be defined as the degree to which the objectives have been attained, as follows: A= Outstanding. Pupil has mastered all the courses major and minor instructional objective B= Very Good. Pupil has mastered all of the courses major instructional objectives and most of the minor objectives. C= Satisfactory. Pupils has mastered all of the courses major instructional objectives but just few of the minor objectives. D= Very Weak. Pupils has mastered just a few of the courses major and minor instructional objectives and barely has the essentials needed for the next highest level of instruction. Remedial work would be desirable. F= Unsatisfactory. Pupils has not mastered any of the courses major instructional objectives and lacks the essentials needed for the next highest level of instruction. Remedial work is needed.

If the tests and other evaluation instruments have been designed by yeild scores in terms of percentage of correct answers, absolute grading then might be defined as follows:

A B C D F

= 95 to 100 percent correct = 85 to 94 percent correct = 75 to 84 percent correct = 65 to 74 percent correct = below 65 person correct

Percent Of Total Points Possible

Absolute Grading System

Objectivebased Grading

Percent Of Total Points Possible

The teacher decides on the total number of points that a student could earn in the course and sets arbitrary achievement levels based on the total. The cut-off for A grades might be 90%, for Bs, 80%, and so forth, and it is assumed that a student who makes 83% knows 83% of the material. If every student scores above 90%, they will all receive As.

Percent Of Total Points Possible

Although this method does provide clear performance targets for students, there are several problems associated with it such as :

1. The rationale for the cut-off scores is usually murky and often based on intuition rather than analysis.
2. The system is based on the assumption that the teacher can construct valid, reliable exams and assignments at consistent levels of difficulty throughout the course. 3. Some teachers apply the same performance scale to every evaluation component, a practice which does not take into account the variability of the assignments or adjust for particularly difficult or particularly easy assignments. 4. Some students may achieve a high number of points simply by doing well on many small, less important assignments.

Objective-based Grading
This method attempts to equate grades with different kinds of performance. In all the grading systems reviewed above, the teacher assumes that students who receive good final grades have learned the more important material and mastered the more complex levels of thinking, but this assumption may not be valid. For E.g, students who do very well on objective exams and poorly on written assignments may earn a respectable final grade, but may not have mastered important intellectual skills that the teacher had in mind. The objective-based grading method takes into account both the amount of material students learn and the level of cognitive complexity they achieve.

Objective-based Grading

To use objective-based grading, the teacher must first review the kinds of knowledge and skills that are implicit in the course and make them explicit as course objectives.
You must identify two kinds of outcomes: minimal objectives and developmental objectives.

Objective-based Grading

Minimum Essential Objectives The student will be able to: describe different kinds of plasmids describe transposons explain how transposon mutagenesis works Developmental Objectives The student will be able to: work problems in bacterial genetics involving transformation, transduction, and conjugation design a protocol to clone a gene or obtain a particular mutant using transposons

Objective-based Grading
If you develop tests and exercises that accurately assess both kinds of objectives, you can set performance standards and grade equivalents on a scale like this one:

Guidelines for Effective Grading

Describe grading procedures to students at beginning of instruction Clarify that course grade will be based on achievement only. Explain how other factors (effort, work habits, etc.) will be reported Relate grading procedures to intended learning outcomes Obtain valid evidence (test, etc.) for assigning grades Try to prevent cheating Return and review all test results as soon as possible

Guidelines for Effective Grading

Properly weight the various types of achievements included in the grade. Do not lower an achievement grade for tardiness, weak effort, or misbehaviour. Be fair. Avoid bias. Hen in doubt, review the evidence. If still in doubt, give the higher grade.

Conducting Parent-Teacher Conferences

Guidelines for a good conference
1. Make plans for conference 2. Start positive 3. Present the pupils strong point before describing the areas needing improvement 4. Encourage parents to participate and share information 5. Plan actions cooperatively 6. End with positive comment 7. Use good human relations skills

Reporting Test Results To Parents

Meaningful Communication of Test Results to Parents Includes:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Decribing what the test measures Explaning the meaning of the test scores. Clarifying the accuracy of the test scores Discussing the use of the test results.

Decribing what the test measures

Learning ability test : Each section of the test may be described in similarly general terms. Test manuals usually contain general descriptions of the tests and subtests that can be used to explain the test to parent. Acievement test : Described in terms of the test content, and the names of the subtests usually indicate what the teast measures. Vocational interest inventories, personal inventories &other guidance-oriented assessment device : Best interpreted by the school counselor or other guidance personnel.

Explaining The Meaning Of Test Scores.

Interpreting percentile ranks

On the reading vocabulary test, Mary scored higher than 85 percent of a national group of fourth grade pupils. (It might also be necessary to point out that the 85 percent does not refer to the percentage of items answered correctly, but only to the percentage of pupils scoring lower)

Interpreting Stanines

On a scale of 1 to 9, on which the average score is 5, Mary received a score of 7 on the reading vocabulary test, when compared with a national group of fourth grade pupils.

(In some cases it may be desirable to use verbal descriptions such as above average[7,8,9], average [4,5,6], or below average [1,2,3] in place of numbers.

Clarifying the accuracy of the test scores It is important to communicate to parents that all test scores contain some error. This can be done most easilt if confidence bands (i.e, error bands) are used in interpreting test scores. Profiles using percentile rank frequently include confidence bands. If these are not available, percentile ranks should be interpreted as estimates that may vary up or down by several points on retesting.

Clarifying the accuracy of the test scores Stanines contain broad units that allow for measurement error. Each stanine is at least one-half standard deviation wide, a difference of 2 stanines usually represents a significant difference in test performance. Thus, if we had scores like these, we could make the following interpretation: Mathematics 8 Reading 6 Science 5

Discussing Use of The Test Result

Test results should be accompanied by an explanation of how the test results are to be used in the instructional program and a discussion of what action should be taken by both teacher and parent to improve the pupils learning and development.
The discussion should not be limited to the test result but should be based on all of the evidence concerning the pupils learning and development. The value of test scores become clearer to parents when they are coordinated with all of the other information about pupil and when they are seen as contributing to plans for constructive action.