Nature of Light

Classical Wave
(1) propagation of oscillations in a
media: need of a medium, non-localization
(2) transfer of energy and momentum
without transporting medium
(3) continuous energy
Frequency v, wavelength
Wave nature: interference and diffraction

Classical Particle
(1) isolated and localized entity
(2) moves without a medium
(3) continuous energy
Mass (m), energy (E) and momentum
(p), position


First, lets have a look at:
Classical wave and classical particle.
Nature of Light
Wave property
(1) light can have interference and
diffraction
(2) it is a part of the electromagnetic
wave spectra, from 400 to 800 nm
(this is the visible spectra for a human
eye > our definition of light. But all e.m.
waves obey same physics, no matter .)
(3) it is described by Maxwell wave
equations, requires no medium to
propagate
Particle property
(1) light shows particle nature
when interacting with matter, such as
absorption and emission
(2) its energy is quantized, in
quanta of E = hv, called photons
(3) the photon is a massless (the
rest mass = 0, recall relativistic mass
definition) and chargeless particle
(4) photon moves at the speed of
light with momentum: p = h/
Plancks constant: h = 6.626x10
-34
J.s
Speed of light in vacuum: c = 2.998x10
8
m/s
Light is both a wave and a particle in a non-classical sense.

Geometrical Optics
Wave nature of light does not play a significant role, no diffraction is considered.
limit {Wave Optics} ----------> {Geometrical Optics}
Both dimension of the optical system and image formed by the system >>
0
Ray: line drawn in space corresponding to the direction of light propagation
Rectilinear propagation of light:
In an uniform media, light propagates in a straight line. Its speed in the
medium is given:
n : index of refraction
c : speed of light in vacuum
e.g. in air and vacuum, n = 1; for most glasses, n ~ 1.5
In geometrical optics, rays are used to trace the light propagation
n
c
v =
Note: Photons energy & frequency are independent on medium hardness, that is: no matter n, one has E=hv.
Laws of Reflection and Refraction
(a) When light travels from one medium to another, the speed changes, as
does the wavelength (but not the frequency!). The index of refraction can
also be stated in terms of wavelength:
n = /
n

wavelength in vacuum,
n
wavelength in the medium


(b) incident, reflection and refraction rays are all in the same plane formed by
the incident ray and surface normal

(c) Angle of incidence equals to the angle of reflection: u
1
= u
r

(d) Snells Law: n
1
sinu
1
= n
2
sinu
2

Angle of refraction

sinu
2
=

n
1
/ n
2
sinu
1


u
r
When n
1
< n
2
, u
1
> u
2
the light bends towards the normal
Total Internal Reflection
When n
1
> n
2
, u
1
< u
2
the light bends away from the
normal

Critical angle u
c
:
sinu
c
=

n
2
/ n
1


Light is refracted at 90, in other words, refracted along
the interface

When the u
1
> u
c
, there will be no refraction and all the
light are reflected, Total internal reflection
Principle of Reversibility
If the reflected or refracted ray is reversed in direction, it will retrace its
original path.
Note: In the case of total internal reflection, there is still a bit of energy protruding into the n
2
medium, right at the
interface. That light is formed by evanescent waves which are decaying exponentially within few . If an object
is placed within this interval, the evanescent waves are strongly perturbed: near-field microscopy as application.
Fermats Principle
Fermats Principle: a light ray going from point S to point P must traverse an optical
path length that is stationary with respect to variations of that path, i.e. it must select the
shortest OPL
Optical Path Length (OPL):

n(s): index of refraction as a function of path
In math language, Fermats Principle requires that:

}
=
= =
m
i
p
s
i i
ds s n s n OPL
1
) (
( ) 0 ) ( = |
.
|

\
|
=
}
p
s
ds s n OPL o o
S
P
Note: example of integration instead of summation: continuously varying n, like n of air above a hot
road or sand (mirages in desserts )
Fermats Principle
Meaning of OPL: the speed of light in i
th
medium v
i
= c / n
i
time staying in the ith medium: t
i
= S
i
/ v
i
= n
i
S
i
/ c
Therefore:

The actual path between two points taken by a beam of light is the one that is
traversed in the least time.

n propagatio of time
1
1 1
= = = =

= =
t t s n
c c
OPL
m
i
i
m
i
i i
Example 1: In an uniform medium, n = const. It is obvious that light rays will
travel in a straight line, since the shortest path between any two points is the
straight line connecting these two points.
Reflection Case
Reflection: The minimum path from source S to the
observers eye at P must satisfy: u
i
= u
r

SAP = SAP; SBP = SBP and SCP = SCP
Second, it is easy to prove that SBP is a straight line: ZSBO= ZOBS= ZPBC.
Therefore, since ZOBC=180, we have ZSBP = 180
Therefore, SBP is the shortest path.

We can also prove that Snells Law using Fermats Principle (Hecht, P107)
The laws of reflection and refraction will be used to build optical systems.
S is the mirror image of source S: SO=SO. Therefore,
the OPL from S to P equals the corresponding OPL from
S to P.
S P
O A B C
Reflecting
surface
S
shield
Optical System
Optical system: an imaging system composed of lenses and mirrors
Ideal (stigmatic) system: point source S is imaged as a geometrical point P
(perfect image). S, P are called conjugate points, since a point source placed at P
would be equally well imaged at S, according to the Principle of Reversibility.
However, in reality, the image quality of a real optical system is always diffraction-
limited, i.e., the image is a blurred spot instead of a perfect geometrical point. This
diffraction effect limits the spatial resolution, which we will discuss in more details
later. In geometrical optics, we neglect any diffraction effect.

S
P
Object space Image space
Optical system
Image space
Refraction at spherical surfaces
A point source S is at distance S
o
from the spherical surface. Lets use Fermats
Principle to find the image distance:
OPL = n
1
SA + n
2
AP (1)

V: vertex
S
o
: object distance SV

S
i
: image distance VP
SC: optical axis, AC: radius R
( ) ( ) | | (2) cos 2
2 / 1
2
2
0
R S R R S R SA l SAC
o o
+ + + = = A
( ) ( ) | | (3) cos 2
2 / 1
2
2
R S R R S R AP l ACP
i i i
+ + = = A
( )
0 =
d
OPL d
Substitute Eqs: (2) and (3) into eq. (1), use Fermats
principle:
A
S P
C
V
h
u
i
u
r
u
t

Fig 5.6
Refraction of spherical surfaces
(a) Eq.(5) describes the parameters of rays after refraction at the spherical surface
(b) This relation is strictly held, i.e. no approximations were made
(c) The position P intercepted by different rays (different -> l
o,i
) is different,
indicating that a point source S will not imaged as point image. That is, a
spherical surface is not an ideal imaging optical system.
We have, (4)
( ) ( )
0
2
sin
2
sin
2 1
=

+
i
i
o
o
l
R S R n
l
R S R n
That is: (5)
|
|
.
|

\
|
= +
o
o
i
i
i o
l
S n
l
S n
R l
n
l
n
1 2 2 1
1
fixed S
o
, R:
S
i
drops with increasing
Paraxial ray condition and image formula
Point source S point images P, this one to one correspondence is given by Eq.(7)
Paraxial rays: rays with very small value of , satisfying condition (6).
Gaussian optics: the optics in the paraxial ray region, also called first-order or
paraxial optics. All the following discussion are within the paraxial ray region.
However, under the paraxial ray conditions: cos 1 and sin (6)
The spherical surface can be approximated as an ideal optical system. Under
these conditions, l
o
= S
o
, l
i
= S
i
, Eq. (5) can be simplified as:
R
n n
S
n
S
n
i o
1 2 2 1

= +
(7)
f
o
: first focal (object focal) length: the object
distance for which S
i
=
F
o
: the corresponding point on the optical axis,
first (object) focus

R
n n
n
f
o
1 2
1

= (8)
Fig. 5.8
Paraxial ray condition and image formula
f
i
: second focal (image focal) length, is the image
distance where S
o
=
F
i
: second (image) focus
(9)
R
n n
n
f
i
1 2
2

=
Real image: image formed by actual converging rays
Virtual image: image formed by extension of diverging rays
Virtual object: an object is virtual when the rays converge toward it (but not
actually crossing with one another)
The nature of images and objects are also reflected by the sign of S
o
and S
i
, see
Table 5.1 in Hecht
SIGN CONVENTION !!
Lenses
F
o
F
i
Simple lens: only one element with two refraction surfaces

Compound lens: contain more than one elements
Thin lens: lens thickness is effectively negligible

Thick lens: lens thickness is not negligible
Centered system: all surfaces are rotationally symmetric about the optical axis
Positive (convex, converging) lens: thicker in the
center, tend to focus the rays

Negative (concave, diverging) lens: thinner in the
center, tend to diverge the rays
F
i
F
o
Thin Lens Equations
Simple spherical lens: contains two refraction spherical surfaces

successively using eq. (7) for these two surfaces, after their summation we have
Where all the parameter are defined in Fig. 5.14 in Hecht Book.
For thin lens, d 0, assuming the lens is in the air (n
m
= 1),
we have the Thin-Lens Equation (Lens maker's Formula):
( )
( )
1 1 2 1 2 1
1 1
i i
l
m l
i
m
o
m
S d S
d n
R R
n n
S
n
S
n

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
= +
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
= +
2 1
1 1
1
1 1
R R
n
S S
l
i o
(14)
(15)
For thin lens, the points V
1
and V
2
tend to coalesce, therefore S
o
and S
i
can be measured
from the either the vertices or the lens center.
Thin Lens Equations
As in spherical refraction surface, we can define two focal lengths:

(16)
Example: planar-convex lens, n
l
= 1.5, R
1
= , R
2
= -50 mm (LEARN THE TABLE in Fig. 5.12)
lim and lim
i
S
i o
S
o
S f S f
o i

= =
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 1
1 1
1
1
R R
n
f
l
Two focal length are equal, (17)
f S S
i o
1 1 1
= +
Gaussian Lens Formula, (18)
( )
100
1
50
1 1
1 5 . 1
1
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
f
f = 100 mm
If an object is placed 600 mm from lens (S
o

= 600 mm), the image distance (S
i
)
mm
f S
f S
S
o
o
120
100 600
100 600
1
=

=
Ray Diagrams
F
o
F
i F
i
F
o
Positive Lens
Negative Lens
F
o
F
i
F
o
F
i
F
i
F
o
F
i
F
o
Important Planes in Thin Lens
The Principal Plane: the plane going through the lens center (optical center)
and perpendicular to the optical axis: the optical ray bending occurs at this level.
The Focal Planes: the planes going through the two
focal points (F
o
, F
i
) and perpendicular to the optical
axis; in the paraxial ray region, bundles of parallel rays
will focus to a point on the corresponding focal plane.
By knowing the principle and focal planes, plus optical
axis, one can determine the outgoing directions of any
incoming rays
Fig. 5.18
F
o
F
i
F
i
F
o
(a) Draw a ray parallel to the incoming ray
through the optical center (b) this ray will
intersect the 2
nd
focal plane (c) the outgoing
ray after lens must pass this point, as shown
in the right figure
Finite Imagery
From now on, we consider the image of an object with finite size (composed of
many point sources) through an optical system.
Spherical surface case (Fig. 5.19): The object is a
segment of a sphere, o
o
, centered at C. Each point on o
o

has a conjugate point on o
i
, which is also a segment of a
sphere centered at C. Under the paraxial ray condition,
these surfaces (o
o
, o
i
) can be considered planar ( OA).
Fig. 5.19
Thus, a small planar object normal to the optical axis will be imaged into a
small planar region also normal to that optical axis. This is true to any optical
system, so long as the paraxial condition is satisfied.
Three most important aspects of an image: location, size and orientation. All of
them can be determined by a ray diagram, as shown in Fig. 5.22.
F
i
F
o
convergent
F
o
F
i
divergent
Ray diagrams!
Transverse Magnification
From now on, we will follow the sign conventions outlined in Table 5.2.
Since the triangles AAOF
i
AP
1
P
2
F
i
(Fig.5.22), we have
Table. 5.2
Transverse magnification M
T
: The ratio of the transverse dimensions of the final
image to the corresponding dimension of the object:
f S
f
Y
Y
i i
o

=
(19)
Similarly triangles AS
2
S
1
O AP
2
P
1
O, we have
i
o
i
o
S
S
Y
Y
=
(20)
o
i
o
i
T
S
S
Y
Y
M =
(24) M
T
>0, erect (up-right) image; M
T
<0, inverted
image. All the real images formed by a single thin
lens will be inverted.
Tables 5.2 & 5.3 summarize the imaging results for a single thin lens under different
imaging conditions.
SIGN CONVENTION !!
Newtonian Lens Equation
Using ray diagram, we can also derive Gaussian Lens Equation
From Eqs. (19) & (20), we have:
Table. 5.3
Newtonian Lens Equation: Since AS
2
S
1
F
0
ABOF
0
we have
(22)
(23) Newtonian Equation
x
o
and x
i
must have the same sign, which indicates that the object and image must
be on the opposite sides of their respective focal points.
f S S f S
f
S
S
i o i i
o
1 1 1
= +

=
f S
f
Y
Y
o o
i

=
Considering: x
o
= S
o
f and x
i
= S
i
f, combine Eqs.(19) & (22), we have:
2
f x x
i o
=
Image of 3-D object
The Newtonian expression for the
transverse magnification is:
Image of 3-D object: in addition to the M
T
, we need to consider also the
longitudinal magnification, related to the axial direction, defined as
(27)
Differentiating Eq. (23) leads to: (28)
o
i
T
x
f
f
x
M = =
(26)
o
i
L
dx
dx
M
2
2
2
T
o
L
M
x
f
M = =
For a thin lens in a single medium, evidently, M
L
< 0, which implies that a positive
dx
o
corresponding to a negative dx
i
and vice versa.
Thin Lens Combinations
Real optical systems usually consists of several lenses, or form a compound lens. In
principle, the final image of the system can be determined by using lens equation,
M
T
and M
L
to each lens successively.
Two thin lens system (Fig. 5.28 & 5.30):
For L
1
: (29) or (30)
1 1 1
1 1 1
o i
S f S
=
1 1
1 1
1
f S
f S
S
o
o
i

=
For L
2
: or
2 2 2
1 1 1
o i
S f S
=
2 2
2 2
2
f S
f S
S
o
o
i

=
1 2 i o
S d S = Substitute (31), we have: (32)
( )
2 1
2 1
2
f S d
f S d
S
i
i
i

=
Substitute Eq. (30), we have: (33)
( )
( )
1 1 1 1 2
1 1 1 1 2 2
2
f S f S f d
f S f S f d f
S
o o
o o
i


=
Thin Lens Combinations
Please note that S
o1
is referenced to O
1
, while S
i2
is referenced to O
2
(34)
For the optical system, we usually define:
front focal length (f.f.l.) (35)

Back focal length (b.f.l.) (36)
The total transverse magnification of the system is the product of the individual
magnifications:

( )
1 1 1 1
2 1
2 1
f S f S d
S f
M M M
o o
i
T T T

= =
( )
( )
2 1
1 2
2
1
lim . . .
f f d
f d f
S l f b
i
S
o +

= =

( )
( )
2 1
2 1
1
2
lim . . .
f f d
f d f
S l f f
o
S
i +

= =

Thin Lens in Contact
In general, f.f.l. b.f.l., however, if d 0, that is when the lenses are brought in
contact, we have:

(37)
If we have N thin lenses in contact:
2 1 2 1
2 1
1 1 1
or . . . . . .
f f f f f
f f
l f b l f f + =
+
== =
N
f f f f
1 1 1 1

2 1
+ + + =
(39)
Stops
In general, an optical system contains not only lenses, but also stops. They are used
to control :
(1) The amount of light reaching the image
(2) the quality of the image, such as sharpness, distortion
(3) Image size, or the angular width of the object that can be imaged by the
system (FOV, field of view)
Aperture stop (A.S.): an element determines the amount of light reaching the image
Field stop (F.S.): an element limiting FOV or the image size, see Fig. 5.33
Compared with camera, A.S. is the aperture in the camera, while F.S. is the film edge.
Fig. 5.33, 5.34, 5.35
Chief ray and Marginal ray
Stops
Pupil: used to determining whether or not a given ray will transverse the entire
optical system
Entrance pupil: image of A.S. as seen from an axial point in the object space
Exit pupil: image of A.S. as seen from an axial point in the image space
As shown in the Figs. 5.34 &5.35, the cone of light entering the optical system is
determined by the entrance pupil, whereas the cone of light leaving it is controlled by
the exit pupil. No rays from the source point proceeding outside either cone will make
it to the image plane.
To determine which stop is of A.S. : (1) using ray diagram to find the images all the
stops in the optical system in object space (2) the image subtends the smallest cone
to a point on the optical axis is entrance pupil (3) the corresponding stop is A.S. (4)
its image in the image space is exit pupil. Note that which stop is A.S. also depends
on the position of the point on the optical axis.
Relative Aperture and f-Number
The total light energy gathered by the lens (or optical system) is proportional to the
area of the entrance pupil:
pupil) entrance of diameter : ( collected energy light
2
D D
The image area is proportional to the square of its lateral dimension, i.e.:
o
T
x
f
M f = area image
2
Therefore, the light intensity (energy/area) or flux density at the image plane varies
as (D/f)
2
. We introduce the f-number (f/#, or focal ratio):
D
f
f #
(40)
Therefore, a smaller f-number lens permits more light to reach the image plane. Its a
faster lens, since the exposure time is proportional to the square of f-number.
Prisms
The prism is one of the most important optical elements, it can serve as beam splitter,
polarizer, dispersion tool and interferometer.
Dispersing Prism (used in optical spectrum analyzer)
Dispersion refers to the frequency dependence of index of refraction, i.e. n(e) or
n() . This implies that the speed of light in a dispersive medium is also a function of
frequency (or wavelength), v(e) = v() = c/n(e) = c/n().
A dispersing prism is an optical element using the dispersive nature of the medium to
separate spatially rays of light with different frequencies.
A ray entering a dispersing prism, as shown in Fig. 5.56, will be deflected from its
original direction by an angle o, known as angular deviation. By using Snells Law and
geometry, we have:
( )( ) | | o o u u o u o + =

cos sin sin sin sin
1
2 1
1
2 2 1
1 i i i
n
Fig. 5.56
(53)
Fig. 5.57
Dispersing Prisms
Where o is the prism apex angle, n is its index of refraction.
Since n is a function of (or e), o is also a function of (or e), o() = o(e).
This dependence of angular deviation on incoming wavelength enables prism to
separate the light of different frequency spatially.
Minimum deviation angle o
m
and its applications

:
For given , o is only a function of incident angle u
i1
, as shown in Fig. 5.57. The
smallest value of o is know as the minimum deviation angle .
By setting : we can prove that for o
m
,

u
i1
= u
t2
, also u
t1
= u
i2
, which indicates for an isosceles prism, the deviation is
minimum when rays transverse the prism symmetrically, that is, parallel to its base.
Under such conditions, we have:
( ) | |
( ) 2 sin
2 sin
o
o o +
=
m
n (54)
This equation provides one of the most
accurate way to determine n for a transparent
medium.
( )
0 1
1
2
1
2 1
1
= + =
+
=
i
t
i
t i
i
d
d
d
d
d
d
u
u
u
o u u
u
o
Reflecting Prisms
Under the minimum deviation conditions, the outgoing
ray direction is stationary with respect to the prism
position, i.e., when the prism is translated along the
direction perpendicular to its base, the outgoing ray
path will not be affected.
Reflecting prisms

:
Prisms used to change either the direction of light propagation or orientation of the
image, or both. Here, the prisms are used for reflection, and no refraction is desired
since it introduces dispersion.
At glass-air interface, the critical angle for total internal reflection is ~42.
Reflecting prism are shaped to let the angle of incidence larger than this 42.
Some examples

:
Right angle prism (Fig. 5.61): it deviates rays normal to the incident face by 90.
Reflecting Prisms
Some examples

:
Porro prism (Fig. 5.62): it deviates incoming rays normal to the incident face by 180.
Image right-handed in will leave right-handed out.
Penta prism (Fig. 5.66): it deviates the beam by 90 with out changing the
orientation of the image.
Double Porro prism (Fig. 5.68): invert image, right-handed in and right-handed out.
Corner-cube prism : it has three mutually perpendicular faces, can be made by cutting
a corner of a cube. It will reflect all incoming rays back along their original directions.