Chapter 4 Lecture Outline

Prepared by Jennifer N. Robertson-Honecker

West Virginia University

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Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work. Potential energy is stored energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy in a system does not change. Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

Energy
The Units of Energy
A calorie (cal) is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 oC. A joule (J) is another unit of energy. 1 cal = 4.184 J Both joules and calories can be reported in the larger units kilojoules (kJ) and kilocalories (kcal). 1,000 J = 1 kJ 1,000 cal = 1 kcal

1 kcal = 4.184 kJ
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Focus on The Human Body

Energy and Nutrition
The amount of stored energy in food is measured using nutritional Calories (upper case C), where 1 Cal = 1,000 cal.

Upon metabolism, proteins, carbohydrates, and fat each release a predictable amount of energy, the caloric value of the substance.
Cal/g Protein 4 cal/g 4,000

Carbohydrate
Fat

4
9

4,000
9,000
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Focus on The Human Body

Energy and Nutrition
Sample Problem 4.2 If a baked potato contains 3 g of protein, a trace of fat, and 23 g of carbohydrates, estimate its number of Calories. Step [1] Identify the original quantity and the desired quantity. 3 g protein 23 g carbohydrates ? Cal original quantities desired quantity

Step [2]

Write out conversion factors. 4 Cal 4 Cal . 1 g protein 1 g carbohydrate

Focus on The Human Body

Energy and Nutrition
Step [3] Multiply the original quantity by the conversion factor for both protein and carbohydrates and add up the results.

Total Cal

= Cal due to protein + Cal due to carbohydrate =3g 4 Cal + 1 g protein 23 g 4 Cal . 1 g carbohydrate

grams cancel Total Cal = 12 Cal + 92 Cal = 104 Cal, rounded to 100 Cal
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The Three States of Matter

Whether a substance exists as a gas, liquid, or solid depends on the balance between the kinetic energy of its particles and the strength of the interactions between the particles. Gas: kinetic energy is high and particles are far apart. The attractive forces between molecules are negligible allowing them to move freely. Liquid: attractive forces hold the molecules much more closely together. The distance between molecules and the kinetic energy is much less. Solid: attractive forces between molecules are even stronger. The distance between particles is small and there is little freedom of motion. 7

The Three States of Matter

Intermolecular Forces, Boiling Point, and Melting Point

Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces that exist between molecules. In order of increasing strength, these are: London dispersion forces Dipoledipole interactions Hydrogen bonding The strength of the intermolecular forces determines whether a compound has a high or low melting point and boiling point, and thus whether it is a solid, 9 liquid, or gas at a given temperature.

Intermolecular Forces
London Dispersion Forces
London dispersion forces are very weak interactions due to the momentary changes in electron density in a molecule. The change in electron density creates a temporary dipole. The weak interaction between these temporary dipoles constitutes London dispersion forces. All covalent compounds exhibit London dispersion forces. The larger the molecule, the larger the attractive force, and the stronger the intermolecular forces.
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Intermolecular Forces
London Dispersion Forces

More e density in one region creates a partial negative charge ().

Less e density in one region creates a partial positive charge (+).

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Intermolecular Forces
DipoleDipole Interactions
Dipoledipole interactions are the attractive forces between the permanent dipoles of two polar molecules.

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Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding occurs when a hydrogen atom bonded to O, N, or F is electrostatically attracted to an O, N, or F atom in another molecule.

Hydrogen bonds are the strongest of the three types of intermolecular forces.
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Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen Bonding in DNA

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Intermolecular Forces

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Intermolecular Forces
Boiling Point and Melting Point
The boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid is converted to the gas phase. The melting point is the temperature at which a solid is converted to the liquid phase.

The stronger the intermolecular forces, the higher the boiling point and melting point.

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Intermolecular Forces
Boiling Point and Melting Point

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Intermolecular Forces
Boiling Point and Melting Point
Both propane and butane have London dispersion forces and nonpolar bonds.
In this case, the larger molecule will have stronger attractive forces.

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Energy and Phase Changes

When energy is absorbed, a process is said to be endothermic. When energy is released, a process is said to be exothermic. In a phase change, the physical state of a substance is altered without changing its composition.

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Converting a Solid to a Liquid

Converting a solid to a liquid is called melting. Melting is endothermicit absorbs heat from the surroundings. Freezing converts a liquid to a solid. Freezing is exothermicit gives off heat to the surroundings.

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Energy and Phase Changes

Converting a Solid to a Liquid

solid water

liquid water

The amount of energy needed to melt 1 gram of a substance is called its heat of fusion.

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Converting a Liquid to a Gas

Vaporization is the conversion of liquids into the gas phase. Vaporization is endothermicit absorbs heat from the surroundings. Condensation is the conversion of gases into the liquid phase. Condensation is exothermicit gives off heat to the surroundings.

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Energy and Phase Changes

Converting a Liquid to a Gas

liquid water

gaseous water

The amount of energy needed to vaporize 1 gram of a substance is called its heat of vaporization. 23

Converting a Solid to a Gas

Sublimation is the conversion of solids directly into the gas phase. Sublimation is endothermicit absorbs heat from the surroundings. Deposition is the conversion of gases into the solid phase. Deposition is exothermicit gives off heat to the surroundings.

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Energy and Phase Changes

Converting a Solid to a Gas

solid CO2

gaseous CO2

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Heating and Cooling Curves

A heating curve shows how the temperature of a substance (plotted on the vertical axis) changes as heat is added.

D
B melting C

boiling
E

gas

liquid

solid
A

The plateau B C occurs at the melting point, while the plateau D E occurs at the boiling point.
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Heating and Cooling Curves

A cooling curve illustrates how the temperature of a substance (plotted on the vertical axis) changes as heat is removed.
V

gas
X W condensation

liquid
Z Y

freezing

solid

The plateau W X occurs at the boiling point, while the plateau Y Z occurs at the freezing point.
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