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Synopsis
Crystal form and habit, Twinning Isomorphism and isomorphous replacement. Determination of specific gravity and refractive
index of crystals. Optical properties. Colours; causes and artificial alteration, diffraction of light. Spectroscopy and absorption spectra. Luminescent and electrical properties. Application of X-rays and ultraviolet light to gem testing. Inclusions and other internal features.
Synopsis contd.
Description of gem minerals. Natural gemstones; colour, chemical composition, crystal
system cleavage, hardness, specific gravity, refractive index, pleochroism, lustre, mode of occurrence. Sources of different gem varieties and methods of identification. Synthetic and Imitation stones: Synthetic, composite and paste stones; methods of manufacture and identification. Organic Products: Native and cultured pearl; their formation, structure and occurrence. Imitation pearl. Methods of identification. Occurrence and identification of Amber; coral, ivory, tortoise's shell etc. Fashioning of gemstone: Outline of methods used by diamond cutters and lapidaries.
List of Books
Webster, R. Gems, their sources, descriptions and Identification. 5th Edition. Read, H.H. Rutleys Elements of Mineralogy. 27th Edition, Thomas Murby & Co., London. Blackburn, W.H. and Dennen, W.H. Principles of Mineralogy. Universal Book Stall, India. Read, H.H. and Watson, J. Introduction to Geology. Vol. 1: Principles. Macmillan, London. Illustrated Guide to Jewelry Appraising. 3rd Edition. Matlins, A. Gem Identification made Easy. 4th Edition. www.allaboutgemstones.com
FORMATION OF A CRYSTAL
Crystals are bodies which are bounded by plane surfaces usually flat, and arranged on a definite plan (i.e. the lattice or unit cell) as an expression of the internal arrangement of atoms. The unit cell is the smallest divisible unit of a given mineral with symmetrical characteristics that are unique to its crystalline structure. A structure's unit-cell is a spatial arrangement of atoms (motifs) which are "tiled" in a three-dimensional space to form the crystal. These crystals are formed by the process known as crystallization which is the solidification of minerals from a magma or post-magmatic environments. Natural substances are of TWO types: crystalline (those with internal orderliness in atom arrangement); amorphous (those without orderliness).
ASSIGNMENT
WRITE ABOUT THE FOLLOWING:
Ionic/polar bond (between ions) Covalent bonding (electron sharing) Metallic bonding (cohesion of metals, i.e. cubic close packing e.g. Cu; body-centered cubic packing e.g. Fe; hexagonal close packing e.g. Mg) Residual bonding (weak forces present in all crystals) Polymorphism (comparison of diamond and graphite).
CRYSTAL CHEMISTRY
In ionic crystals, cations are surrounded by certain number of anions, and at a distance according to the atomic radii of those atoms. The number of cations surrounding an anion (or vice versa) is called the Coordination Number, which is determined by the ratio of the radii of the two ions. Crystal formation depends on two main factors: electrical neutrality and ionic radii, the former being responsible for attraction between different ions and repulsion between like ions. The ionic radii guarantee optimum distance requirement for stable compounds formation.
Crystal Morphology
Crystals are bounded by a number of surfaces which are
usually perfectly flat but may be curved, e.g. some specimens of siderite and diamond. These surfaces are called faces. Faces with same properties are called like faces, while those with different properties are called unlike faces. A crystal with like faces is called a simple form, while a crystal of two or more groups of faces is called a combination. Other characteristics are: edge, solid angle, and interfacial angle.
Crystal System
All gemstones are crystalline structures made from a mixture of different elemental compounds, and the shape of a crystal is based on the atomic structure of these elemental building blocks. A gem's crystal structure will determine its symmetry, optical properties, cleavage planes, and overall geometric shape. The recipe, or mixture of these compounds becomes the blueprint for how the crystal will grow. A crystal's growth pattern is referred to as its "Crystal Habit." The crystal system is a grouping of crystal structures that are categorized according to the axial system used to describe their "lattice". A crystal's lattice is a three dimensional network of atoms that are arranged in a symmetrical pattern.
Crystal System
Cubic System
contd.
Also known as isometric system. It is characterized by its total symmetry. Three crystallographic axes that are all perpendicular to each other, and equal in length. It has one lattice point on each of the cube's four corners.
Crystal System
contd.
Hexagonal System It has four crystallographic axes consisting of three equal horizontal or equatorial (a, b, and d) axes at 120o, and one vertical (c) axis that is perpendicular to the other three. The (c) axis can be shorter, or longer than the horizontal axes.
Crystal System
contd.
Tetragonal System
The crystal is a simple cubic shape that is stretched along its (c) axis to form a rectangular prism. The tetragonal crystal will have a square base and top, but a height which is taller. By continuing to stretch the "body-centered" cubic, one more Bravais lattice of the tetragonal system is constructed.
Crystal System
contd.
Rhombohedral System
It is also called Trigonal system, with a three-dimensional shape that is similar to a cube, but it has been skewed or inclined to one side making it oblique. Its form is considered prismatic because all six crystal faces are parallel to each other. Any faces that are not squared at right angels are called "rhombi. A rhombohedral crystal has six faces, 12 edges, and 8 vertices. If all of the non-obtuse internal angles of the faces are equal (flat sample, below), it can be called a trigonal-trapezohedron.
Crystal System
contd.
Orthorhombic System
It is also called Rhombic system. The crystal system has three mutually perpendicular axes, all with different, or unequal lengths.
Crystal System
contd.
Monoclinic System
The crystals have three unequal axes: The (a) and (c) crystallographic axes are inclined toward each other at an oblique angle, and the (b) axis is perpendicular to a and c. The (b) crystallographic axis is called the "ortho" axis.
Crystal System
Triclinic System
contd.
The crystals have three unequal crystallographic axes, all of which intersect at oblique angles. Triclinic crystals have a 1-fold symmetry axis with virtually no discernible symmetry, and no mirrored or prismatic planes.
Twinning
Some substances commonly crystallise as composite crystals of a sort known as twinned crystals. Twinning occurs when two or more crystals intergrow in a symmetrical arrangement. Well-known examples are fluorite, calcite, copper and diamond. A twinned consists of two or more individual single crystals joined together in some definite mutual orientation, such that the lattice of one individual is related to that of the other individual(s) in the composite crystal by some simple symmetry operation.
Twinning
contd.
Therefore it looks as if they have been divided along a plane and one half orientated 180o, manifesting in opposite sides being brought to the same end or distance away from the plane. One part of the twin looks like a mirror image of the other. The plane of reflection is called the twin plane, while the axis about which the crystals can be rotated is known as the twin axis which is usually at right angles to the twin plane.
Twinning
contd.
Where the two components of a twinned crystal are joined in a plane, the crystal is called a contact twin and the plane of mutual contact, which is a lattice plane, is known as the composition plane. In general, it is true to say that if the twin axis is a zone axis, then the composition plane is parallel to the twin axis. In reflexion twins, the composition plane is parallel to the twin plane.
Twinning
contd.
Types of Twin Crystals 1) Growth twins, Deformation (or glide) twins, transformation (or inversion) twins. 2) (a) Simple twin: two halves symmetrical about the twin plane, e.g. calcite and rutile. (b) Repeated twin: this is produced by repetition of twinning, e.g. albite twinning with parallel twin planes. (c) Penetration twin: this type has two crystals which cannot be actually separated into two, e.g. fluorite (CaF2)
Twinning
contd.
Formation of Twinned Crystals As a crystal grows from its initial nucleus, some accident of growth may cause it to twin; such accidents being for a variety of reasons very much more probable in some structures than in others. Twinning may alternatively provide a means of relieving the strain induced by some applied stress. Twinning may also be produced as the result of polymorphic transformations when a structure of higher symmetry is converted to a structure of lower symmetry on cooling.
contd.
The incident angle is the angle of the approaching light as it intersects with the stone's exterior surface. The refractive angle is the altered angle of the light as it passes through the stone's interior. The Refractive Index is the ratio of difference between these two angles. Each material has its own unique density and Refractive Index.
effects caused by reflection or refraction) is due to the absorptive and reflective properties of any trace elements and impurities within the crystal. Basic elements such as chromium, copper, iron, manganese, and vanadium absorb and/or reflect different wavelengths of the color spectrum playing an integral part in affecting the color of the mineral. Color in gemstones can be caused by chromophores (trace impurities), crystallographic (electronic) distortions in the stone's matrix, or a combination of both.
Opals also exhibit milky or smoky reflections from within the gem. Gems that are fibrous in structure show irregular interior reflections similar to those seen on watered or moir silk. This optical property, which is called chatoyancy, is exhibited by several gems, notably the tiger-eye and cats-eye. The appearance of a gem as seen by reflected light is another optical property of gemstones and is called luster. The luster of gems is characterized by the terms metallic, adamantine (like the luster of the diamond), vitreous (like the luster of glass), resinous, greasy, silky, pearly, or dull. Luster is particularly important in the identification of gemstones in their uncut state.
contd.
on their optical properties. The most important optical properties are the degree of refraction and color. Other properties include fire (the display of prismatic colors), dichroism (the ability of some gemstones to present two different colors when viewed in different directions), and transparency.
contd.
IDENTIFICATION OF GEMS
A gem cannot always be identified by sight alone. The gemologist uses an instrument called a
refractometer to measure the characteristic property of the stone, known as refractive index, which is its relative ability to refract light. Emeralds, rubies, sapphires, amethysts, and synthetic rubies and sapphires are all doubly refracting, whereas diamonds, spinels, synthetic spinels, garnets, and glass are singly refracting.
TYPES OF GEMS Artificial Gem: The term artificial gem is used to describe either an imitation of a natural gemstone or a synthetic gem that is chemically identical to naturally occurring gems. There are two types: Imitation and Synthetic types.
Imitation Gems
Such a gem may be made of flint glass, often silvered on the back to increase the brilliance. Since World War II, colored plastics have replaced glass, especially in costume jewelry. Plastics are cheaper, more easily molded, and lighter in weight. During the 19th century, artificial pearls were made by blowing hollow beads of glass and pouring into them a mixture of liquid ammonia and the white matter from the scales of fish such as the bleak, roach, or dace.
Imitation Gems
contd.
The most successful imitation of a diamond is strontium titanate, made by a flame-fusion technique. Its RI is almost identical to that of diamond, and it has a higher dispersion. Thus, it has the brilliance and greater fire than diamond. It scratches easily, however. A harder material simulating the diamond is rutile, or titanium oxide.
Synthetic Gems
These are manufactured materials that duplicate a
natural gemstone chemically, physically, and optically. Synthetic gems can be distinguished under a microscope because they are more perfect than natural gemstones and contain no irregularities. The diamonds thus produced are suitable only for industrial use. In the late 1960s a method was developed for growing diamonds by heating a diamond particle to a high temperature and subjecting it to methane gas. The gas decomposes into carbon atoms, which adhere to the diamond crystal. The crystal structure of the enlarged diamond is identical to that of a natural diamond.
JEWELRY
In its widest sense the term jewelry
encompasses objects made of many kinds of organic and inorganic materials such as hair, feathers, leather, scales, bones, shells, wood, ceramics, metals, and minerals. Jewelry, ornaments of precious metal, sometimes set with gems, worn since ancient times by people of all cultures for personal adornment, as badges of social or official rank, and as emblems of religious, social, or political affiliation.
JEWELRY contd.
The term properly refers to mounted precious or semiprecious stones and to objects made of valuable or attractive metals such as gold, silver, platinum, copper, and brass.
JEWELRY contd.
Jewelry has been worn: on the head in the form of crowns, diadems,
tiaras, aigrettes, hairpins, hat ornaments, earrings, nose rings, earplugs, and lip rings; on the neck in the form of collars, necklaces, and pendants; on the breast in the form of pectorals, brooches, clasps, and buttons; on the limbs in the form of rings, bracelets, armlets, and anklets; and at the waist in the form of belts and girdles, with pendants such as chatelaines, scent cases, and rosaries.
Marking: A rough stone is marked prior to cleaving or sawing to determine the direction of the grain or "cleavage", eliminate waste, and bypass inclusions or imperfections. The natural shape of the rough stone will also be a major factor in deciding how to cut the stone.
Cleaving: This refers to splitting a stone along its grain by striking it. A rough stone is cleaved if there are conspicuous defects and/or inclusions which would prevent it from being made into a single gemstone.
Sawing: The rough stone is cut to a shape that approximates the shape of the finished cut stone but without the facets.
Dia-Analyser uses a camera to take photographs of the finished diamond while it is being rotated.
The Poly-Metric Scintillator 88 Digital machine (left) and the Facetron (right) are semi-automated faceting machines. They are water-cooled machines designed to make cuts at precise angles by plotting out to depth and degree of a given facet. The rough gemstone is held by a chuck called a "Dop stick" or "Dop chuck" and ground against a grinding plate called a "lap".
Rough gemstone attached to a dop stick (Center bottom). Lapidary gemstone saw (slab saw) and grinder (Right).
Cabochon Grinder/Tumbler
In order to understand why a gem is faceted or cut en cabochon, it is important to understand how light will behave once it passes into a gemstone or is reflected off its surface.
The "critical angle" calculation is used to determine how facets should be placed in relation to each other in order to control the path of light within a gemstone.
Optical effects that are the result of light being refracted are Spectral dispersion Double refraction (and/or reflected) Light scattering from the gemstone. 1. Pseudochromatic Coloration: Caused from optics effects created by spectral dispersion: Fire: Diamond, Zircon 2. Double Refraction: Caused by incident light being split into two separate rays: Birefringence: Calcite, Moissanite, Zircon 3. Pseudochromatic Coloration: Caused from optics effects created by light scattering: Chatoyancy: Alexandrite, Tiger's Eye Asterism: Garnet, Star Ruby, Star Sapphire Luster: Pearl, Talc, Gypsum Aventurescence: Sunstone, Aventurine Quartz Adularescence: Moonstone (blue), Opal (milky white)
Columnar Quartz (left), Smoky Quartz (center), and Basalt Rock (Yellowstone, Wyoming) Formations (right)
Uncut Geode (left), Amethyst Geode (center), and Quartz Geode (right)