Professional Documents
Culture Documents
VIBRATION MONITORING
VIBRATION THOUGH HAS SEVERAL UNDESIRABLE
EFFECTS ITS CHARECTERISTICS CAN BE MONITORED TO GET INFORMATION ABOUT THE HEALTH OF THE MACHINERY AND ANY IMPENDING DISASTER OR HIDDEN DEFECT.
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VIBRATION MONITORING
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Fatigue affects humans in different ways, although most people suffer from: decreased problem solving ability increased risk taking delayed reaction time moodiness inability to concentrate, and inattentiveness. Logical reasoning and decision-making are affected by fatigue and it impairs
human physical abilities such as strength, speed, coordination, and balance
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CAUSES OF FATIGUE
Fatigue may result from: poor sleep quality sleep deprivation physical/mental exertion emotional stress disruption of circadian rhythms poor physical condition, drug/alcohol use. Everyone has felt the effects of fatigue. It is usually described as an
uncontrollable urge to sleep or rest. It has also been described as a "fog" that comes over the brain at certain times of the day. Of importance is that fatigue lowers alertness levels and impairs performance.
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The physiological changes that occur due to noise are the result
of the natural "fight or flight" response of the human body. The body perceives all noise as a threat or warning of danger and continuously responds to it accordingly, even at low noise levels and while a person is asleep
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(c) Digestive disorders: ulcers, colitis (d) Endocrine and biochemical disorders (e) Sleep disturbance
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NOISE EXPOSURE
Noise levels that cause the human body to respond in
these ways vary with individuals.
Definitions
Peak Sound Pressure (Ppeak) This is measured in units of pressure (pascals) and not decibels. It is the maximum
instantaneous noise pressure measured on a 'C' weighted frequency scale. 'C' weighting is used as it is almost a linear weighting which is incorporated in many commercial sound level meters.
Daily Noise Exposure Level (LEX,8h) Because noise exposure depends on both the amplitude of noise and the duration of
exposure, the daily noise exposure level is the time weighted average of the noise level experienced. It is normalized for an 8 hour working day so that if for example the exposure time per day is more than 8 hours, the noise level to which an employee is exposed must be reduced.
The LEX,8h is a direct replacement of the old LEP,d and is measured in dBA.
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(1) The Lower Exposure Action Value is 80dBA LEX,8h and peak
pressure Ppeak of 112 pascals.
(2) The Upper Exposure Action Value is 85dBA LEX,8h and peak
pressure, Ppeak of 140 pascals.
Upper Action Value In particular, if the upper action value is exceeded the employer is to reduce
noise by either technical means and or organizational means. Warning signs must be displayed and if possible access to these noisy areas restricted.
Ear Protection
Once the possibility of noise reduction by technical or organisational means
has been eliminated, efficient ear protection must be made available and must be used. The employer must see that this is done.
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100.000.000 Pa
Jet take-off
at 100 meters distance
100 dB
SOUND PRESSURE
1.000.000 Pa
90 dB 80 dB
100.000 Pa
70 dB 60 dB
10.000 Pa
50 dB 40 dB
Library Bedroom
1.000 Pa
30 dB 20 dB
100 Pa
20 Pa
Germanischer Lloyd 2010 Propulsion system Integration 13~25/02/2012
10 dB
Pop group
10.000.000 Pa
110 dB
Sound pressure
Airborne + 62 dB = Waterborne
Maritime Organization (IMO) July 2009: The committee urged governments to review their commercial fleets to identify the ships that contribute most to underwater noise pollution
Noise sources
Propellers, thrusters
Water flow
Source
Grey whale moans Bowhead whale tonals, moans, and song Humpback whale song
Noise transmission
Audible noise can be broken down into two
categories: (1) airborne and (2) structure-borne.
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Noise Control
A ship designer must consider a number of different issues when designing to reduce and
control noise. There are three locations where noise can be minimized and four basic methods of controlling it. Isolation: Minimizes noise by reducing vibrations caused by machinery or equipment. Vibration-absorbing materials are used such as rubber mounts, pads, or springs. The type of material for an application is based on weight, vibration frequency, and desired degree of isolation. Barriers: Minimizes noise by blocking sound transmission through the use of high mass, resilient, or limp mass materials. Using more mass increases the effect and barriers work better at higher frequencies. Damping: Minimizes noise by adding mass to the vibrating structure or by connecting it to a surface that does not want to vibrate. Damping materials are selected by considering the thickness of the vibrating surface, the desired reduction, and the environment. Absorption: Minimizes noise with resonators and open-celled porous material, which converts sound energy to heat. Materials used are based on the noise frequency, desired reduction, and environment.
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Physiological: Cardiac rhythm increases Respiration rhythm increases Blood circulation increases Vasoconstriction Endocrine secretions Central nervous system affected
Comfort and Performance: Pain Nausea Vision problems Posture Movement and coordination decline Force Perceptions altered
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Vibration Exposure Criteria for the Longitudinal Directions with Respect to Body Axis
Germanischer Lloyd 2010 Propulsion system Integration 13~25/02/2012
Vibration Exposure Criteria for the Transverse Directions with Respect to Body Axis
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Vibration Control
Listed below are the three effective ways:
maximum, regardless of magnitude, in a transmissibility function, including local maxima which may exist at the frequency endpoints of the transmissibility function. Typically, a response prominence is identified by the frequency of its maximum response, which is the response prominence frequency. A response prominence of a system in forced oscillation exists when any change, for both plus and minus increments however small, in the frequency of excitation results in a decrease of the system response at the observing sensor registering the maximum. A response prominence may occur in an internal part of the equipment, with little or not outward manifestation at the vibration measurement point, and in some cases, the response may be detected by observing some other type of output function of the equipment, such as voltage, current, or any other measurable physical parameter. Instructions on how to identify response prominences is provided in Appendix A.
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Balance Definitions
Rotor, flexible A flexible rotor is one that does not meet the criteria for a
rigid rotor and operates above its first resonance. The unbalance of a flexible rotor changes with speed. Any value of unbalance assigned to a flexible rotor must be at a particular speed. The balancing of flexible rotors requires correction in more than two planes. A rotor which operates above n resonances requires n+2 balance planes of correction. A rotor which operates between the second and third resonances, for example, requires 2 + 2 balance planes of correction.
corrected in any two arbitrary selected planes and it operates below its first resonance. After correction, its residual unbalance does not exceed the allowed tolerance, relative to the shaft axis, at any speed up to the maximum service speed and when running under conditions which approximate closely to those of the final supporting system.
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MIL-STD-167-1A
15 SECOND TEST/ ID RESPONSE PROMINANCES
AND/OR RESONANCES
2 HR ENDURANCE TEST
FOR ONE CLASS INSTALLATION, TEST UP TO AND
INCLUDING: F = (DESIGN RPM/60) x (NUMBER OF PROPELLER BLADES) x 1.15 NOTE: ROUND ANSWER UP TO
NEXT HIGHER INTEGRAL FREQUENCY
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CHANGING DIRECTION OF VIBRATION), AND AFTER TEST. ENSURE ALL BOLTS ARE PROPER GRIP LENGTH AND THAT THE WASHERS ARE NOT ROTATING. CONCENTRATION. CONSIDER COMPOSITE AND CAST MATERIALS. THE COMBATANTS PROPELLERS. THE ALTERNATING THRUST IS HIGH FOR FLAT PROPELLERS AND DECREASES SIGNIFICANTLY FOR MODERN HIGHLY SKEWED PROPELLERS.
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Vibration Environment
Validate the accelerometer's sensitivity before and after testing.
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ACCELEROMETER PROBLEMS
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Vibration Standards
(.28/.05 = 5.6)
(.297/.075 = 4.0)
For stern of combatant test levels are 7 times higher than shipboard measurements ( (1.2 + 4.0 + 5.6) = 3.6); (Assuming Mag. Factor of 2: 3.6 X 2 7)
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Isolation Mountings
For Type I testing of material to be installed shipboard on isolation mounts, testing
shall be performed on isolation mounts or hard mounted to the testing machine, or as specified. Type I testing of a particular test item on isolation mounts is valid only for the isolation mount type and configuration used during testing. Ensure the transmissibility across the mounts does not exceed 1.5 within the blade frequency range of 80% to 115% of design RPM. If material is tested for Type I vibrations hard mounted to the test fixture throughout the duration of the test, the test is valid for either hard mounted or isolation mounted shipboard installations, provided the isolation mounts are Navy standard mounts contained in MIL-M-17191, MIL-M-17508, MIL-M-19379, MIL-M-19863, MIL-M-21649, MIL-M-24476, or distributed isolation material (DIM).
The endurance test is for a total period of two hours at the frequency moist seriously
affecting the equipment. One of the frequencies selected should be the isolation mount frequency if the test is to be performed on isolation mounts.
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Balancing
A process of minimizing the distance, , between the mass centerline and the
geometric centerline of a rotor.
G: balance quality grade in mm/sec. G = (eccentricity from balance in mm) = G/ (units of are rad/sec) Note is the distance between the shaft axis and rotor center of gravity. Mass unbalance occurs when the center of mass of a rotor does not coincide with
the rotors geometric center.
Mass center
Geometric center
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For rigid rotors that operate below 1000 rpm, the total balance quality grade shall not
exceed G = 2.5 mm/s. For rigid rotors that operate at 1000 rpm and above, the total balance quality grade shall not exceed G = 1.0 mm/s. For rigid rotors that require low noise, a balance quality grade of G = 1.0 mm/s can be specified for all speeds. For guidance on balance quality grades of rigid rotors, see ANSI S2.19.
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This is a more severe requirement. Since: G(total) = (e is ecentricity from balance in mm)
The distance e between the shaft axis and the rotor center of gravity has been
reduced in MIL-STD-167-1A
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For G = 2.5 mm/sec : U = 6G(W/N) = 6(2.5) 500/6000 = 1.25 oz-in total and G =
; = G/ = 2.5/(2 6000/60) = 2.5/200 = 0.004 mm allowed eccentricity ( = 2 f = 2 RPM/60) For G = 4/3 mm/sec (Old 4W/N requirement) : U = 6GW/N = 6(4/3) 500/6000 = 2/3 oz-in total ; G = ; = G/ = 4/3/(2 6000/60) = (4/3) 1/628 = 0.0021 mm allowed eccentricity For G = 1.0 mm/sec ; U = 6GW/N = 6(1) 500/6000 = oz-in total; For low noise rigid rotors G= ; = G/ = 1.0/(2 6000/60) = 0.0016 mm allowed eccentricity.
The lower the balance quality grade, the quieter the rigid rotor because of the
small eccentricity, .
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VIBRATION DEFINATIONS
It may affect any group of components, or any one. It can occur at any
frequency up to those which are more commonly called noise.
VIBRATION DEFINATIONS
The total vertical movement is called the Peak to Peak Displacement of the vibration.
This is an indication of the amount of the amount of lateral movement of the machine and is good indication of the amount of out of balance in a machine when the value is compared to a standard for that machine. This parameter is often used when balancing.
The Vibration Velocity is the speed of movement of this point ,being highest as the
point passes through its at rest position. It gives good guide to the amount of energy being generated by the vibrating object. This energy usually results in wear and eventual failure.
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VIBRATION DEFINATIONS
For analysis purposes the r.m.s value is used.
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SHAFT VIBRATION
Any elastically coupled shaft or other system will have one or
more natural frequencies which, if excited, can build up to an amplitude which is perfectly capable of breaking crankshafts.
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q is the stiffness in newton-metres per radian, and I is the moment of inertia of the attached mass in kg
metres2.
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Vibration frequency
The equation is true only when the majority of the vibration
occurs at one frequency.
Vibration spectrum
Vibration phase can be defined as the angular relationship between the positions of maximum vibrations and some fixed point on a rotating shaft at any instant.
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VIBRATION PARAMETERS
It is important to understand that with sinusoidal vibration, the
relationship between acceleration, velocity and displacement is fixed and frequency dependent.
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VIBRATION PARAMETERS
In other words, if the frequency is held constant,
increasing or decreasing the amplitude of any one of the three parameters results in a corresponding proportional increase or decrease in both of the other two parameters.
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where:
g= acceleration, gs peak D= displacement, inches, peak to peak V= velocity, inches per second, peak f = frequency, Hz
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Vibration characteristics
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ACCELERATION MEASUREMENT
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VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
Standard measurement groups include:
FFT, order tracking, octave, swept-sine, correlation, time capture, and time/histogram
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VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
Averaging A wide selection of averaging techniques to improve your signal-to-noise
ratio. RMS averaging reduces signal fluctuations, while vector averaging minimizes noise from synchronous signals. Peak hold averaging is also available. Both linear and exponential averaging are provided for each mode
Order Tracking Order tracking is used to evaluate the behavior of rotating machinery.
Measurement data is displayed as a function of multiples of the shaft frequency (orders), rather than absolute frequency. Combined with a waterfall plot, or "order map" of your data as a function of time or rpm. Using the slice feature, the amplitude profile of specific orders in the map can be analyzed. In tracked order mode, the intensity of individual orders vs. rpm is measured
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VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
Octave Analysis
Real-time 1/1, 1/3 and 1/12 octave analysis, at frequencies up to
40 kHz (single channel) or 20 kHz (two channel). Octave analysis is fully compliant with ANSI S1.11-1986 (Order 3, type 1-D) and IEC 225-1966. Switchable analog A-weighting filters, as well as A, B and C weighting math functions, are included. Averaging choices include exponential time averaging, linear time averaging, peak hold, and equal confidence averaging. Broadband sound level is measured and displayed as the last band in the octave graph.
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VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
Swept-Sine Measurements Swept-sine mode is ideal for signal analysis that involves high dynamic range or
wide frequency spans. Gain is optimized at each point in the measurement, producing up to 145 dB of dynamic range. A frequency resolution of up to 2000 points is also provided. Auto-ranging can be used with source auto-leveling to maintain a constant input or output level at the device under test (to test response at a specific amplitude, for instance).
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VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
Time Capture
Analog waveforms can be captured at sampling rates of 262
kHz or any binary sub-multiple, allowing to optimize sampling rate and storage for any application. For example, 8 Msamples of memory will capture 32 seconds of time domain data at the maximum 262 kHz sample rate, or about 9 hours of data at a 256 Hz sample rate. Once captured, any portion of the signal can be played back. The convenient Auto-Pan feature lets you display measurement results synchronously with the corresponding portion of the capture buffer to identify important features
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VIBRATION MEASUREMENT
Waterfall Waterfall plots are a convenient way of viewing a time history of data. Each
successive measurement record is plotted along the z-axis making it easy to see trends in the data. All FFT, octave and order tracking measurements can be stored in waterfall buffer memory. Waterfall traces can be stored every n time records for FFT and order tracking measurements. For order tracking measurements, new records can be acquired at a specific time interval or change in rpm. In octave measurements, the storage interval is in seconds (as fast as every 4 ms). While displaying waterfall plots, you can adjust the skew angle to reveal important features, or change the baseline threshold to eliminate low-level clutter. Any z-axis slice or x-axis record can be saved to disk or displayed separately for analysis.
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The four elements of importance in ship vibration are: Excitation, Stiffness, Frequency Ratio, and Damping
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No. 88
Much vibration can be avoided by careful design and manufacture ,for example
ensuring that rotating masses on machines are balanced.
Otherwise ,it can be dealt with by isolating the responsible machinery from its base
support structure ,interrupting the path which vibration is transmitted from its source,
Impressing a counter vibration on the source such that the unwanted vibration is
cancelled , or by controlling the response of ships structure by imposing a counter vibration on it.
Instead of attempting to isolate structure from source vibration ,the response of the
structure to that vibration could be sensed and actively controlled using strategically placed transducers and cancellation techniques
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The former requires the mount to be stiff as possible , while for the latter it needs to
be highly resilient. indeed, for maximum effect, as soft as possible.
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The latter arrangement has the advantage that the active element does not
have to bear the source machines weight ,but the inertial actuator has to be powerful enough to overcome the stiffness of the passive mount.
Smart Spring mount fail to a safe condition since, should the active
component or power fail ,they can still operate passively.
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But local problems usually involve local structural resonances and often
considered as minor problems, as the correction approach by local stiffening may be easily achievable
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Typical causes could be nbalance, U Misalignment, Damaged or worn bearings, Damaged or worn teeth Resonance, loose components Bending or eccentricity of shafts, Electromagnetic effects, Unequal thermal effects Aerodynamic forces (turbocharger) Hydraulic forces Bad belt drives Oil whirl Reciprocating forces. The great majority of the above create a vibration at a multiple of the fundamental
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Vibration Aspects of Two-stroke Diesel Engines The vibration characteristics of the twostroke low speed diesel engines can for practical purposes be, split up into four categories: External unbalanced moments :These can
be classified as unbalanced 1st , 2nd and may be 4th order external moments, which need to be considered only for certain cylinder numbers Guide force moments Axial vibrations in the shaft system Torsional vibrations in the shaft system.
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This can be Mathematically, expressed as follows: Of these moments, only the 1st order (one cycle per revolution) and the 2nd order
(two cycles per revolution) need to be considered, and then only for engines with a low number of cylinders.
On some large bore engines the 4th external order moment may also have to be
examined.
The inertia forces on engines with more than 6 cylinders tend, more or less, to
neutralize themselves.
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This resonance can be calculated with reasonable accuracy, and the calculation for
the specific plant will show whether or not a compensator is necessary.
In rare cases, where the 1st order moment may cause resonance with both the
vertical and the horizontal hull vibration mode in the normal speed range of the engine,
With a 1st order moment compensator fitted aft, the horizontal moment will
decrease to between 0 and 30% of the value, depending on the position of the node. The 1st order vertical moment will decrease to about 30% of the value.
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This type of compensator needs preparations in the form of an extra seating, prefer-able in the steering gear room, where deflections are largest and the compensator, therefore, will have the greatest effect,
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Force = MH /L kN
where L is the distance between crankshaft level and the middle
position of the guide plane (i.e. the length of the connecting rod).
The centre units do not contribute very much whereas the units at
each end contributes much.
A so-called Bi-moment can be calculated The X-type guide force moment is then defined as:
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Secondary forces
These excitation forces are not generated within the
engine, but are resultant of the interaction effect of the prime mover the propeller and the shafting system.
There are two main types of these vibrations: Axial vibrations and torsional vibrations.
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Torsional vibrations
The varying gas pressure in the cylinders
during the working cycle and the crankshaft/connecting rod mechanism create a varying torque in the crank-shaft. It is these variations that cause the excitation of torsional vibration of the shaft system.
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With the PRU-value, stating the external moment relative to the engine power, it is
possible to give an estimate of the risk of hull vibrations for a specific engine. Based on service experience from a greater number of large ships with engines of different types and cylinder numbers, the PRU-values have been classified in four groups as follows: from 0 to 60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . not relevant from 60 to 120 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . unlikely from 120 to 220 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . likely above 220 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . most likely
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It is important to realize that an engine with one cylinder cut out for any
reason, or one with a serious imbalance between cylinder loads or timings, may inadvertently be aggravating a summation of vectors which the designer, expecting it to be small, had allowed to remain near the running speed range.
In general any kind of irregularity in the cylinder firings produces and enlarged
vibratory stresses in the components of the propulsion plant.
The absence of firing of one unit significantly changes the whole picture of
the propulsion plant vibration behavior.
Misfiring in any one cylinder gives rise to resonances that are small or even
negligible during the normal operation of plant
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This would set up in turn a lateral vibration of the piston and hence of the
entablature.
It is usually difficult, and sometimes impossible, to control all the possible critical
speed, so that in a variable speed propulsion engine it is sometimes necessary to bar a range of speeds where vibration is considered too dangerous for continuous operation.
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The lower 1,: Determines a stress level which may only be exceeded for a short time, i.e.
not during continuous running, which means that the propulsion plant requires a barred speed range of revolutions.
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Axial vibrations
When the crank throw is loaded by the gas pressure
through the connecting rod mechanism, the arms of the crank throw deflect in the axial direction of the crankshaft, exciting axial vibrations.
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Axial vibrations
An axial damper is fitted as standard to all MC engines minimizing
the effects of the axial vibrations.
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No. 167
It consists of a damping flange integrated to the crankshaft and placed near the
last main bearing girder, inside a cylindrical casing. The casing is filled with system oil on both side of flanges supplied via small orifice. This oil provides the damping effect.
When the crankshaft vibrates axially, the oil in the sides of damping flange
circulates inside the casing through a throttling valve provided from one side of the flange to the other, which gives a damping effect.
The casing is provided with high temperature alarm and pressure monitoring
alarms located on both sides of damping flanges. They give alarm if one side oil pressure drops more than the set value as a result of low LO supply, sealing ring failure etc.
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The 1 -node vibration mode is normally of less importance. Its natural frequency is determined by the mass and stiffness of the entire shafting system. Especially the stiffness of the thrust bearing and its support is very decisive. Normally, the natural frequency is so high that no dynamic amplification of this mode will occur
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Hull Wake
Hull wake is one of the most critical aspects in avoidance
of unacceptable ship vibration.
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Wake asymmetry
The streamlines are more or less horizontal along the skeg
and into the propeller disk. The flow components along the steep buttock lines forward of the propeller disk are small.
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After-body Slamming
Shock impacts such as slamming also need consideration since
as well as generating structural tertiary stresses in the ship structure, these events can be disturbing to passengers.
After-body Slamming
The incidence of after-body slamming, in contrast to forebody slamming, frequently reduces with increasing ship speed.
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After-body Slamming
In addition to being a function of reducing ship speed,
the slamming threshold speed is also dependent on the sea state, recognizing that the resultant sea state comprises both underlying swell and wind induced wave components which strongly influence the directional slamming threshold.
After-body Slamming
after-body slamming has been known to occur in sea
conditions with wave heights less than 1m.
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