Sam Mansfield

Antigens are any substance that stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies. Antigens can be bacteria, viruses, or fungi that cause infection and disease Antigens are often chemicals on the surface of a cell membrane, such as proteins, glycoproteins or carbohydrates They can also be toxins made by bacteria In the immune response, antigen carrying microorganisms are digested by macrophages through phagocytosis, within this antigen processing occurs which results in the antigens being presented on the macrophage, becoming an APC. This allows Lymphocytes (B-cells and T-cells) to bind onto the antigen and produce identical cells that can react to antigen if it is ever present in the immune system again.

Antibodies are proteins with special shapes that recognize and bind to foreign substances, such as bacteria or viruses, surrounding them so that scavenger cells can destroy them and flush them out of the body Antibodies are secreted through plasma cells , and these antibodies are identical to the immunoglobulin of the parent B-cell from which the plasma cell differentiated from. The ability of most pathogens to invade host cells is dramatically reduced when they are combined with antibodies When antigens on pathogens are bound to antibodies, the microorganisms clump together (agglutinate) which helps prevent them spreading through the body. The antigen-antibody complex may stimulate other reactions in the body such as the release of histamine from mast cells, causing inflammation.

 T-cells are made in the bone marrow but mature and become active in the thymus gland. The surface of each T-cell displays thousands of identical T-cell receptors. There are 2 types of T-cells, T-killer and T-helper cells. T-killer cells produce chemicals that destroy pathogens. T-helper cells are involved in the process which produces antibodies against antigens on a particular pathogen. T-helper cells have a vital role, even though they are not involved in directly destroying the pathogen. they produce cytokines in vital stages in immune responses, which allows for clonal expansion to occur in both T-cells and B-cells. And with the clonal expansion of B-cells, antibodies are also made.

 B-cells are made in the bone marrow and mature in the lymph glands. B-cells have membrane bound globular receptor proteins on their cell surface membrane which are identical to the antibodies they will later produce. When B-cells come into contact with the antigen, phagocytosis then antigen processing occurs, making the B-cell an APC. T-helpers then bind and secrete cytokines, which causes the B-cell to undergo clonal expansion into B-effector cells and B-memory cells B-effector cells differentiate into plasma cells which produce antibodies B-memory cells remain as part of the secondary response