Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties

6.1 Introduction
Tensile Strength Tensile Test Flexural Strength Bend Test for brittle materials Hardness Hardness Test Toughness Impact Test Fatigue Life Fatigue Test Creep rate Creep Test

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties

6.2 Tensile Test

Engineerin g stress Engineerin g strain

F A0 l l0 l0

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.2-3 Tensile Test & the properties obtained from the Tensile Test
Engineerin g stress F A0

l l0 Engineerin g strain l0

Note: in Metals, Yield stress is usually the stress required for dislocations to slip.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.2-3 Tensile Test & the properties obtained from the Tensile Test

Note: Youngs modulus is a measure of the stiffness of the material.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.2-3 Tensile Test & the properties obtained from the Tensile Test

Er=1/2(yield strength)(strain at yielding)

Poisson' s ratio :

longitudin al

lateral

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.2-3
Tensile Test & the properties obtained from the Tensile Test

Er=1/2(yield strength)(strain at yielding)

Poisson' s ratio :

longitudin al

lateral

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.2-3
Tensile Test & the properties obtained from the Tensile Test

Effect of Temperature

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.4 The Bend Test for Brittle Material Due to the presence of flaw at the surface,

in many brittle materials, the normal tensile

test cannot easily be performed.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.4 The Bend Test for Brittle Material

Flexural strength

3FL , where F is fracture Load. 2 2wh

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.4 The Bend Test for Brittle Material

where is deflection

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.5 True Stress-True Strain

F Engineerin g stress A0 l l0 Engineerin g strain l0

F True stress t ' A l dl l' A True strain t ln( ) ln( 0' ) l l l0 A

' 0

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.6 The Hardness Test
Brinell Hardness : HB F ( / 2) D( D D 2 Di2 )

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.6 The Hardness Test

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.7 The Impact Test impact strength
To evaluate the brittleness of a material subjected to a sudden blow.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.7 The Impact Test impact strength Impact strength vs. Temperature

Note: BCC metals have transition temperature, but most FCC metals do not.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.7 The Impact Test impact strength

Yield Strength: A > B

Impact Strength: B > A

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.11 The Fatigue Test Fatigue Life, Fatigue Strength

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.11 The Fatigue Test S-N curve

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.14 The Creep Test:
Apply stress to a material at an elevated temperature Creep: Plastic deformation at high temperature

a typical creep curve showing the strain produced as

a function of time for a constant stress and temperature.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.14 The Creep Test:

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Chapter 6 Mechanical Testing and Properties 6.15 Use of Creep Data

(a) Stress-rupture curves for an iron-chromium-nickel alloy (b) The Larson-Miller parameter for ductile cast iron

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Creep Testing

Creep Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Time dependent deformation under an applied load. Metals/alloys do not exhibit time dependent deformation under normal service condition. Metals subjected to a constant load at elevated temperatures will undergo a time dependent increase in length.

Homologousof Materials Science and Engineering Elements Temperatures

The high and low temperature are relative to the absolute melting temperature of the material. Homologous temperatures of more than 0.5 of melting T is of engineering significance. Metal Melting temp. 0.5xMelting Temp Lead 327oC 600oK 327oK 27oC W 3407 3680 1840 1567

Creep curve of Materials Science and Engineering Elements

creep rate of Materials Science and Engineering Elements

The rate of deformation of a sample is known as the creep rate. It is the slope created by the creep v. time.

Creep stages Materials Science and Engineering Elements of

the primary creep starts at a rapid rate and slows with time; the secondary creep has a relatively uniform rate; the tertiary creep has an accelerated creep rate and terminates when the material breaks or ruptures.

High Temperature Mechanical Test Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

High temperature Tensile Test Creep Test: Stress rupture Test High temperature Tensile Test: Similar to short term room temperature testcompleted in few minutes and provide stress versus strain curve.

Creep test of Materials Science and Engineering Elements

Measure dimensional changes accurately at constant high temperature and constant load or stress. Useful for long term applications which are strain limited. such as turbine blade.

Creep Test of Materials Science and Engineering Elements

Measure strain verses time at constant T and Load. Relatively low loads and creep rate Long duration 2000 to 10,000 hours. Not always fracture. Strain typically less than .5%.

Stress rupture Test Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Measure time to failure at specified stress and temperature. Useful for applications where some strain can be tolerated but failure must be avoided. such as large furnace housings.

Stress rupture Test Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Measure stress verses time to rupture at constant temperature. Higher load and creep rate. Shorter duration, less than 1000 hours. Always to fracture Time and strain to fracture measured. Strain typically up to 50%.

Creep testing Materials Science and Engineering Elements of

Creep generally occurs at elevated temperatures, so it is common for this type of testing to be performed with an environmental chamber for precise heating/cooling control. Temperature control is critical to minimize the effects of thermal expansion on the sample.

How to Perform a Creep Test? Engineering Elements of Materials Science and

The unloaded specimen is first heated to the required T and the gage length is measured. The predetermined load is applied quickly without shock. Measurement of the extension are observed at frequent interval. Average of about 50 readings should be taken.

Creep parameter Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

To predict the stress and time for long lives on the basis of much shorter data. Plant life 30 to 40 years(260000,35000 hrs) While creep data is not available beyond lives of more than 30000 hrs. Larson Miller Parameter Manson Hafford parameter

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

To determine stress-relaxation of a material, the specimen is deformed a given amount and decrease in stress is recorded over prolonged period of exposure at constant elevated temperature. The stress-relaxation rate is the slope of the curve at any point.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Creep Testing

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Creep is a time-dependent deformation of a material while under an applied load that is below its yield strength. It is most often occurs at elevated temperature, but some materials creep at room temperature. Creep terminates in rupture if steps are not taken to bring to a halt

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Creep in service is usually affected by changing conditions of loading and temperature The number of possible stresstemperature-time combinations is infinite. The creep mechanisms is often different between metals, plastics, rubber, concrete.

Creep Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Time dependent deformation under an applied load. Metals/alloys do not exhibit time dependent deformation under normal service condition. Metals subjected to a constant load at elevated temperatures will undergo a time dependent increase in length.

Homologousof Materials Science and Engineering Elements Temperatures

The high and low temperature are relative to the absolute melting temperature of the material. Homologous temperatures of more than 0.5 of melting T is of engineering significance. Metal Melting temp. 0.5xMelting Temp Lead 327oC 600oK 327oK 27oC W 3407 3680 1840 1567

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Creep curve of Materials Science and Engineering Elements

creep rate of Materials Science and Engineering Elements

The rate of deformation of a sample is known as the creep rate. It is the slope created by the creep v. time.

Creep stages Materials Science and Engineering Elements of

the primary creep starts at a rapid rate and slows with time; the secondary creep has a relatively uniform rate; the tertiary creep has an accelerated creep rate and terminates when the material breaks or ruptures.

High Temperature Mechanical Test Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

High temperature Tensile Test Creep Test: Stress rupture Test High temperature Tensile Test: Similar to short term room temperature testcompleted in few minutes and provide stress versus strain curve.

Creep test of Materials Science and Engineering Elements

Measure dimensional changes accurately at constant high temperature and constant load or stress. Useful for long term applications which are strain limited. such as turbine blade.

Creep Test of Materials Science and Engineering Elements

Measure strain verses time at constant T and Load. Relatively low loads and creep rate Long duration 2000 to 10,000 hours. Not always fracture. Strain typically less than .5%.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Stress Rupture Properties Stress rupture testing is similar to creep testing except that the stresses are higher than those used in a creep testing. Stress rupture tests are used to determine the time necessary to produce failure. Stress rupture testing is always done until failure. Data is plotted as log-log. A straight line or best fit curve is usually obtained at each temperature of interest. This information can then be used to extrapolate time to failure for longer times.

Stress rupture of Materials Science and Engineering Elements Data On log-log scale

Stress rupture Test Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Measure time to failure at specified stress and temperature. Useful for applications where some strain can be tolerated but failure must be avoided. such as large furnace housings.

Stress rupture Test Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Measure stress verses time to rupture at constant temperature. Higher load and creep rate. Shorter duration, less than 1000 hours. Always to fracture Time and strain to fracture measured. Strain typically up to 50%.

Creep testing Materials Science and Engineering Elements of

Creep generally occurs at elevated temperatures, so it is common for this type of testing to be performed with an environmental chamber for precise heating/cooling control. Temperature control is critical to minimize the effects of thermal expansion on the sample.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

How to Perform a Creep Test? Engineering Elements of Materials Science and

The unloaded specimen is first heated to the required T and the gage length is measured. The predetermined load is applied quickly without shock. Measurement of the extension are observed at frequent interval. Average of about 50 readings should be taken.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Creep parameter Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

To predict the stress and time for long lives on the basis of much shorter data. Plant life 30 to 40 years(260000,35000 hrs) While creep data is not available beyond lives of more than 30000 hrs. Larson Miller Parameter Manson Hafford parameter

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

To determine stress-relaxation of a material, the specimen is deformed a given amount and decrease in stress is recorded over prolonged period of exposure at constant elevated temperature. The stress-relaxation rate is the slope of the curve at any point.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Defects in Crystalline Materials and Engineering Elements of Materials Science

All real crystals contain imperfections which may be point, line , surface or volume defects. Which disturb locally the regular arrangement of the atoms. Their presence can significantly modify the properties of crystalline solids.

Structure -insensitive Properties and Engineering Elements of Materials Science

Elastic constants Melting point Density Specific heat Coefficient of thermal expansion. Structure-sensitive Properties Electrical conductivity Semiconductor Properties Yield stress Fracture Strength Creep strength

Structure-sensitive Properties Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Electrical conductivity Semiconductor Properties Yield stress Fracture Strength Creep strength Practically all the mechanical properties are structure-sensitive properties.

Defect, or imperfection Science and Engineering Elements of Materials The term defect, or imperfection, is generally used to describe any deviation from an orderly array of lattice points. When the deviation from the periodic arrangement of the lattice is localized to the vicinity of only a few atoms it is called a point defect, or point imperfection. However if the defects extends through microscopic region of the crystal, it is called a lattice imperfection. Lattice imperfections may be divided into Line defects and surface or Plane, defects.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Lattice imperfections may be divided into Line defects and surface or Plane, defects. However if the defects extends through microscopic region of the crystal, it is called a lattice imperfection. Lattice imperfections may be divided into Line defects and surface or Plane, defects.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Line defects obtain their name because they propagate as lines or as a two dimensional net in the crystal. The edge and Screw dislocations are the common line defects encountered in materials. Surface defects arise from the clustering of line defects into plane

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Grain boundaries, a low angle boundaries and Twin boundaries are surface defects. The stacking fault between two closed packed regions of the crystal that have alternate stacking sequences and twinned region of a crystal are other example of surface defects.

Point Defects Materials Science and Engineering Elements of

All the atoms in a perfect lattice are at specific atomic sites (ignoring thermal vibrations). In pure metal two types of point defect are possible, I) Intrinsic defects ii) Exterinsic defects. Intrinsic defects: i) A vacant atomic site or vacancy, ii) an interstitial atom. Vacancy formed by the removal of an atom from the an atomic site . Interstitial by the introduction of an atom into a nonlattice site at 1/2, 1/2, 0 position.

Vacancy & of Materials Science and Engineering Elements Interstitial

It is known that vacancies and interstitials can be produced in materials by plastic deformation and highenergy partical irradiation. The latter process is particularly important in materials in nuclear reactor installations. The interstitial defect occurs in pure metals as a result of bombardment with high-energy nuclear particles ( radiation damage), but it does not occur frequently as a result of thermal activation. Further more, intrinsic point defects are introduced into crystals simply by virtue of temperature, for all temperature above 0K there is a thermodynamically stable concentration.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

The formation energy of interistial is typically two to four times more than the formation energy of vacancy. Therefore in metals in thermal equilibrium the concentration of intestinal may be neglected in comparison with that of vacancies

Extrinsic defects Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Exterinsic defects . Impurity atoms in a crystal can be considered as a extrinsic point defect. Impurity atoms can take up two different types of sites. Substitutional. An atom of the parent lattice lying in a lattice site is replaced by the impurity atom Interstitial The impurity atom is at a non- lattice site

Dislocation of Materials Science and Engineering Elements

The most important two dimensional, or line, defect is the dislocation. Dislocations are important for explaining the slip of crystals, They are also intimately connected with nearly all other mechanical phenomena such as , the yield point, strain hardening /work hardening, creep, fatigue, and brittle fracture.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

One way of thinking of a dislocation is to consider that it is the region of localized lattice disturbance separating the slipped and un slipped region of a crystal.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering The two basic types of dislocations : Edge dislocation , Burger vector is normal to the line of the dislocation Two types Positive edge dislocation and negative edge dislocation. Screw dislocation, burger vector is parallel to the line of dislocation.Two types , Right hand screw and left hand screw dislocation.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

Two important rules. I) The burger vector of edge dislocation is normal to the line of the dislocation . II) The burger vector of screw dislocation is parallel to the line of the dislocation . All crystals, apart from some whiskers, contain dislocations and in well annealed crystals the dislocation are arranged in a rather ill- defined net work, the frank net.

Dislocationof Materials Science and Engineering Elements Density The dislocation density is defined as the total length of dislocation line per unit volume of crystal, normally quoted in units of mm-2. Thus for a volume V containing line length l, Density = l/V. An alternative definition, the number of dislocations intersecting a unit area, again measured in units of mm-2 . If all the dislocations are parallel, the two density values are the same, but for completely random arrangement the volume density is twice the surface density.

Stacking FaultsMaterials Science and Engineering Elements of

A stacking fault is a planer defects , it is a local region in the crystal where the regular sequence has been interrupted. The atomic arrangement on the plane of an fcc structure and the plane of an hcp structure could be obtained by the stacking of closed- packed planes of spheres. For the fcc strycture, the stacking sequence of the planes of atom is given by ABCABCABC. For the hcp structure, the sequence is given by ABABAB and there is no alternate site for an A layer resting on B layer.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering For the hcp structure, the sequence is given by ABABAB and there is no alternate site for an A layer resting on B layer.In case of ABCABCABC stacking, A layer can rest equally well on either B or C position and geometrically there is no reason for the selection of a particular position. Therefore in fcc lattice two types of stacking fault are possible. Either by removal or introduction of stacking sequence.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering

In case of ABCABCABC stacking, A layer can rest equally well on either B or C position and geometrically there is no reason for the selection of a particular position. Therefore in fcc lattice two types of stacking fault are possible. Either by removal or introduction of stacking sequence. i) Intrinsic stacking fault part of the layer has been removed which results in a break of the stacking sequence. ii) Extrinsic stacking fault. An extra layer has been introduced between B and C layer. There are two breaks in the stacking sequence.

Elements of Materials Science and Engineering