CHAPTER 4

ECOSYSTEMS AND HOW THEY WORK

Ecology and Life

Ecology is study of how organisms interact with one another and with their nonliving environment A species consists of all organisms -living things-which can reproduce living offspring Populations consist of organisms of same species living in same place at same time Genetically diverse organisms contribute genes to the populations gene pool

Ecology and Life -2

Several interacting populations occupying the same habitat form a community An ecosystem is the communities and their nonliving environment; all Earths ecosystems form the ecosphere What are 6 characteristics of living things that enable growth, survival and reproduction?

Reproduction and Evolution

While asexual reproduction can produce new offspring - they are all identical Sexual reproduction produces organisms have new combinations of parental traits. Traits which offer a better chance of survival are adaptive and lead to evolution Biodiversity refers to all of the variety of living organisms and their traits

Earths Life-support Systems

Atmosphere consists of inner trophosphere and outer stratosphere Hydrosphere is liquid, solid & gaseous water Lithosphere is crust and upper mantle Ecosphere is portion of earth where organisms interact (atmosphere, hydrosphere, and upper lithosphere)

Sustaining Life on Earth

Interconnected factors include:
one-way flow of high quality energy from sun;
What is the path?

Cycling of matter or nutrients through ecosphere Gravity permits earth to hold onto all parts of ecosphere

Life is Sustained by Sun

Sunlight supplies energy for photosynthesis Solar energy powers cycling of matter Solar energy drives climate and weather systems Hydrogen and helium nuclei fuse releasing solar energy

Effects of Solar Radiation

Solar energy reaching earth is either reflected (28%) or absorbed (28%) Absorbed radiation warms, evaporated, cycles, and generates winds. Less than 1% is captured for photosynthesis these reactions produce all organic compounds required for all living organisms Greenhouse effect - ultimate change of all solar radiation to heat (infrared radiation)

Ecosystem Concepts
Biomes are large terrestrial regions characterized by distinct climate and specific life forms. Climate is weather - over the long term; it determines type of life forms in biomes Biomes contain many ecosystems Aquatic life zones (like biomes) consist of freshwater and marine life zones

Major Components of Ecosystems

Abiotic - nonliving; water, air, nutrients and solar energy
physical factors affecting terrestrial ecosystems
What are the six factors listed?

Physical factors affecting aquatic ecosystems

What are three factors listed?

Biotic - living components

Observe how abiotic and biotic components interact (fig. 4.9 and 4.10)

Tolerance
Each population has range of variations in environmental factors that it can tolerate; the extremes of the range of tolerance are tolerance limits. Within this range of tolerance are variety of conditions which are optimal for success.
State the law of tolerance

Some factors limit population growth more than others - Name limiting factors in terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems

Biotic Components of Ecosystem

Producers (autotrophs) transform solar energy into chemical energy of bonds of organic molecules - Photo (&chemo)synthesis
green plants and aquatic phytoplankton

Consumers (heterotrophs) cannot synthesize organic molecules from scratch - they can convert organic molecules from food to other organic molecules needed

Consumers
Consumers (heterotrophs) obtain energy and nutrients from other organisms
Herbivores - primary consumers Secondary & tertiary consumers may be:
carnivores - meat-eaters omnivores - plant and meat eaters scavengers and detritus feeders feed on animals already killed or remains of such

Decomposers - recycle organic molecules and release inorganic molecules - biodegradation

One-way Flow of Energy

Respiration is release of energy from chemical bonds of organic molecules
Aerobic (w/oxygen) respiration --> complete breakdown of glucose to CO2 + water + energy Anaerobic (w/out oxygen) respiration (also called fermentation) --> incomplete breakdown of glucose --> methane, alcohol or acetic acid One-way flow of energy through organisms Matter & energy recycles through ecosystems

Food Chains
Food chain - how nutrients and energy move through organisms in ecosystem who eats who (Fig. 4-14)
trophic levels begin with producers and end with decomposers Be sure you can identify types of organisms at each trophic level, I.e. producers, primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers

Food Webs
Food web - network of interconnected food chains; more complex because one organism is never eaten by only one other Identify the various trophic levels shown in Fig. 4.15

Energy flow and Biomass storage

Biomass (dry weight of organic matter) is transferred between trophic levels - but at each level some biomass changes to energy and is lost Ecological efficiency compares biomass transferred to that converted and lost Pyramid of energy flow shows that first trophic level has greatest amount of energy - some is transferred and some is lost at each level

Pyramid of Biomass
This pyramid demonstrates the total amount of biomass at each trophic level Why is biomass of producers less than that of primary consumers in ocean ecosystem?

Pyramid of Numbers
The actual number of organisms at each trophic level - regardless of size (amount of energy or biomass contained) Numbers of organisms at first level often greatest and fourth level often has least number of organisms - unless the producers individually contain more biomass

Primary Productivity
Gross Primary productivity - rate at which producers convert solar energy into chemical energy Net Primary productivity - accounts for energy that produces use for their own respiration - biomass lost - so this rate is always less Net primary productivity determines carrying capacity of species in ecosystems

Comparisons of net productivity

Which life zones have the greatest net productivity? Why zones have the least? Though tropical rain forest have high productivity for natural plants, the productivity when cleared is much less. What effect have humans had on the earths net productivity?

Matter Cycling in Ecosystems

Nutrients are any atoms, ions or molecules needed by organisms to live, grow or reproduce. Nutrient cycles (biogeochemical cycles) show how elements needed in greatest amounts travel through ecosystems

Hydrologic (water) Cycle

Main processes:
evaporation -liquid water to water vapor transpiration - evaporation from plants condensation - water vapor to liquid water precipitation - water from air goes to land infiltration - water moves into soil percolation - water flows downward through soil runoff - water flows downward across surface

Hydrologic Cycle -2
Cycle powered by solar energy and gravity Water vapor measurements: absolute vs. relative humidity Condensation requires condensation nuclei and occurs at dew point How does surface runoff affect lithosphere? Name three ways Man has intervened in water cycle.

Carbon Cycle
Earths temperature varies with changes in carbon dioxide in atmosphere and water Producers use CO2 from atmosphere for photosynthesis Consumers release CO2 to atmosphere Carbon of buried organisms may become fossil fuels Most carbon stored as limestone and in water - How has Man disturbed carbon cycle?

Nitrogen Cycles
Most is in gas form in atmosphere Gaseous nitrogen must be fixed to form ammonia or nitrates for plant assimilation Plants synthesize nitrogen-containing organic molecules - proteins & nucleic acids
Ammonia and nitrates converted back to gas which reenters atmosphere How has Man intervened in nitrogen cycle?

Phosphorus Cycle
There is no gaseous phase for phosphorus Phosphorus circulates through water, earths crust and living organisms Phosphorus is added to land naturally by guano and artificially by fertilizer Phosphorus is limiting factor in growth of many organisms
How has Man intervened in phosphorus cycle?

Sulfur Cycle
Much sulfur stored underground in rocks and minerals Sulfur enters atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide and sulfates Water combines with sulfur dioxide to form acid rain How has Man increased the atmospheric phase of the sulfur cycle?

Ecological Research
Field research - dirty, difficult and expensive, but important; new technologies Laboratory research - set up model ecosystems with controlled variables; easier but must be coupled with field research Systems analysis - computer simulations used to make prediction; accuracy depends on input

Ecosystem Services and Sustainability

Ecosystem services constitute earths natural capital; one is biological diversity:
genetic diversity - individuals in species vary in genetic makeup species diversity - habitats contain wide variety of different species ecological diversity - ecosystems contain wide variety of communities

Ecosystem Services and Sustainability -2

Ecosystem services provide recycling, purification and natural pest control Each species results from many adaptations Each species provides raw material for future adaptation Two basic principles of natural ecosystem sustainability: use renewable solar energy and recycle nutrients efficiently