Presented by-

Up to this point, the inference to the population has been concerned with scores on one or more variables, such as CAT scores, mathematics achievement, and hours spent on the computer. We used these scores to make the inferences about population means. To be sure not all research questions involve score data. Today the data that we analyze consists of frequencies; that is, the number of individuals falling into categories. In other words, the variables are measured on a nominal scale. The test statistic for frequency data is Pearson Chi-Square. The magnitude of Pearson Chi-Square reflects the amount of discrepancy between observed frequencies and expected frequencies.

The expected value and variance of a chisquare:

E(x)=df
Var(x)=2(df)

Chi-square test of goodness of fit. Chi-square test for independence of attributes. To test if the population has a specified value of the variance of To test the equality of several population proportions.

N- the total frequency should be considerably large, say greater than 50. The sample observations should be independent. It mean no individual item should be repeated. The constraints on the see frequencies, if any, should be linear. If the theoretical frequency is lass than 5 then we cannot apply chi-square test. The given distribution should not be replaced by relative frequencies. Data should be given in original units.

2 (O E)2 E

ie add up all the values of (O-E)2 E You need to find the degree of freedom. Compare your value of 2 with tabulated: large values are significant and accepted.

Suppose a researcher is interested in voting preferences on gun control issues. A questionnaire was developed and sent to a random sample of 90 voters. The researcher also collects information about the political party membership of the sample of 90 respondents.

Favor
Democrat 10

Neutral
10 15 25

Oppose
30 10 40

f row
50 40 n = 90

Republican 15 f column 25

Row frequency

Favor Democrat 10

Neutral 10

Oppose 30

f row 50

Republica 15 n
f column 25

15
25

10
40

40
n = 90

Favor Democrat 10
Republica 15 n 25 Column f column frequency

Neutral 10
15 25

Oppose 30
10 40

f row 50
40 n = 90

1. 2.

Party Membership ( 2 levels) and Nominal Voting Preference ( 3 levels) and Nominal

Alpha of 0.05 (assumed)

Ho : There is no difference between D & R in their opinion on gun control issue.

Ha : There is an association between responses to the gun control survey and the party membership in the population.

Favor Democrat fo =10 fe =13.9 Republica fo =15 n fe =11.1 f column 25

Neutral fo =10 fe =13.9 fo =15 fe =11.1 25

Oppose fo =30 fe=22.2 fo =10 fe =17.8 40

f row 50 40 n = 90

Favor Democrat

Neutral

Oppose fo =30 fe=22.2 fo =10 fe =17.8

f row 50 40

= 50*25/90

fo =10 fo =10 fe =13.9 fe =13.9

Republican fo =15 fo =15 fe =11.1 fe =11.1

f column

25

25

40

n = 90

Favor Democrat fo =10 fe =13.9 Republican fo =15 fe =11.1 f column 25

Neutral

Oppose

f row 50 40 n = 90

fo =10 fo =30 fe =13.9 fe=22.2 = 40* 25/90 fo =15 fo =10 fe =11.1 fe =17.8 25 40

(10 13.89) 2 (10 13.89) 2 (30 22.2) 2 2 13.89 13.89 22.2 (15 11.11) 2 (15 11.11) 2 (10 17.8) 2 11.11 11.11 17.8
= 11.03

df = (R-1)(C-1) = (2-1)(3-1) =2

= 0.05 df = 2 Critical tabled value = 5.991 Test statistic, 11.03, exceeds critical value Null hypothesis is rejected Democrats & Republicans differ significantly in their opinions on gun control issues

2 distribution ranges from zero to some positive value, i.e., no difference to some big difference. 2 distribution is not symmetrical, but skewed to the right, from zero to a large positive 2. Chi square looks at differences from zero. Its value depends on the number of comparisons made, that is, the number of df. Note that the critical value of chi square gets bigger as the df get bigger, just because the more comparisons made the more likely you are to find differences, so df corrects for this. There are many different 2 distributions. Like the t distribution, 2 varies with degrees of freedom.

The term Analysis of variance was introduced my Prof.R.A.fisher in the 1920s. It is a very powerful statistical tool for the test of significance. In a situation where there are 3 or more samples to consider at a time an alternative procedure is needed to test the hypothesis. It is when analysis of variance method is used.

According to Prof. R.A.Fisher analysis of variance (ANOVA) is the Separation variance ascribable to one group of causes from the variance ascribable to the other group. By this technique the total variation in the sample data is expressed as the sum of its non-negative components. The ANOVA technique is based on the Fdistribution.

The observations are independent. Parent population from which the observations are taken are normal. Various treatment and environmental effects are addictive in nature.

Analysis of variance can be done in two ways. They are One-way classification Two-way classification.

Terminology Lets suppose that n sample observations of a random variable x are divided into k classes on the basis of some criterion or factor of classification. Let the ith class consist of ni observations and let