Chapter 1 Introduction to Structural Mechanics

Autumn 2008

Dr. Pizhong Qiao, P.E. Department of Engineering Mechanics, Hohai University

a. Structures - Introduction
Structure a physical entity has a unitary character that can be

conceived of as an organization of positioned constituent element in

space in which the character of the whole dominates the interrelationship of the part.

Primarily designed to function as a whole unit

Secondarily as an array of discrete elements Function: Channeling the load to the support (ground) Designing a structure the act of positioning constituent elements

b. Primary Classification (Fig. 1-1)

Method for classifying structural elements and systems:

Shape (geometry: line-forming vs. surface-forming)

Basic physical properties (stiffness: flexible vs. rigid) Others: 1) one- or two-way systems and 2) Materials

c. Primary Structural Elements

Based on Stiffness (Fig. 1-3):
Rigid element beam, column or strut, tie-rod, arch, flat plate, singlycurved plate, and shell Flexible elements cable (straight or draped) and membrane

Derived elements frame, truss, geodesic dome, net

d. Primary Structural Units and Aggregations

Building structures are volume-forming in nature Bridge structures are used to form or support linear surface Structural unit a discrete volume-forming structural element or an assembly of structural elements and usually consists of (Fig. 1-4)

Horizontal spanning system

Vertical support system Lateral support system

One-way and two-way structures

Rigid structures

Flexible Structures

e. Analysis and Design of Structures Basic Issues

Fundamental Phenomena (Figs. 1-5, 1-6, 1-7): Overall stability Internal stability

Strength and stiffness of constituent elements

Member under Internal Forces - the action of an external force on a structure produces internal forces within a structure (Fig. 1-8): Tension Compression Bending Torsion

Bearing
Internal forces Deflection (excessive deformation) stress and strain

f. Funicular Structure
Definition structures with shapes where only a state of tension or compression is induced by the loading (Fig. 1-9)

Tension Funicular Inverted Compression Funicular

For example, an arch can be conceived of as an inverted catenary (Fig. 1-10) A tension funicular pulls inward and downward; a support or foundation must apply an outward and upward force on the structure A compression funicular moves outward and downward; a foundation must exert an inward and upward force on the structure The combinations of applied forces acting on the foundation are commonly called thrusts. The final or resultant direction of the thrusts is along the tangent to the slope of structure at the point where the funicular structure meets the support (bending is not present in the structure; all the internal forces are directed axially along the length of the member) Further evolution of the basic funicular shape into other forms (Fig. 1-12)

Pursuing a Career as a Structural Engineer (SE): Professional Engineer (Structures I): - Building - Bridge - Foundation - Lateral Structures (wind or seismic) - Steel - Reinforced Concrete - Masonry - Timber Professional Engineer (Structures II, CA): - Seismic Design - Earthquake Engineering Structural Engineering Certification Board (SECB)

a. Mechanics Applied Science dealing with forces and motions a system of forces acting on a body is in a state of balance Equilibrium
Statics relations between forces acting on rigid bodies that are in equilibrium and at rest Dynamics rigid bodies in motion

Mechanics (Strength) of Materials relation between applied (external) force on a body and internal effects in the body
Structural Analysis and Design use as tools from each of the above basic fields in a nonsequential manner and in an integrative way.

b. Forces and Moments

- a directed interaction between bodies - Scalar and Vector - Graphics Statics Parallelogram Law

c. Reaction d. Shear and Moment e. Material Properties

eStructures - CD

Point of Inflection (P.I.):

1. 2. 3. Point of zero moment Transition point between positive and negative moments Point at where the reversal of curvature takes place.

Examples:
P
P.I.

2P
P.I.

P
P.I.

2P

P 2P

2P

Reverse Curvature

Points of Zero Moment

1)

10)

Hinge

2)

11)

Hinge

3)

12)

4)

13)

5)

14)

6)

15)

7)

16)

8)

Hinges

17)

9)

Hinges

Point of Inflection (P.I.): Draw DS and RBM

a. Analysis and Design Criteria

Serviceability safe design without excessive material distress and with deformation within an acceptable range Efficiency relatively economy (minimum volume) Construction material used should be easy to fabricate and assemble Costs material economy and ease of construction Others Subjective matters (the role of Structure as a space definer)

b. Design Philosophies
- Allowable Stress Design (ASD) - Plastic Design (PD) - Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

c. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

- To ensure that the stress computed under the action of the working load (i.e., service loads) of a structure do not exceed some predesigned allowable values.

Rn Qni F .S . i 1

Rn nominal resistance (psi or Pa) Qn working or service stress (psi or Pa) i type of load; m number of load type

d. Plastic Design (PD)

- To ensure that the factored load combinations of structure do not exceed the maximum plastic strength of the structure

Rn nominal plastic strength m Rn Qni Qn nominal load effect load factor i 1 i type of load; m number of load type e. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
- To ensure that the nominal resistance of the structure exceeds that of the load effects. Two safety factors are used: one applied to the loads and the other to the resistance of the materials.

Rn i Qni
i 1

Rn nominal resistance of the structure Qn load effect resistance factor (usually < 1.0) (Table 1.2) load factor (usually > 1.0) (Table 1.1) i type of load; m number of load type

e. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) (Cont.)

- A satisfactory design is the one in which the probability of the structural member exceeding a limit state (e.g., yielding, fracture or buckling etc) is minimal. - The safety of the structural member is measured by a reliability or safety index (Fig. 1.24, Chen and Liu 1987)

ln( Rn / Qn ) V R VQ
2 2

R mean resistance; Q mean load effect standard deviation; VR coefficient of variation of resistance

R Q
Q R

VQ coefficient of variation of load effect

- The magnitude of b reflects the safety of the member (the larger of b, the smaller the area of shaded area, and the more improbable that a limit state may be exceeded) b = 3.0 for member and b = 4.5 for connector under dead + live b = 2.5 for member under dead + live + wind loading b = 1.75 for member under dead + live + earthquake loading

e. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) (Cont.)

- Reliability or safety index (Fig. 1.24, Chen and Liu 1987)

- The magnitude of b reflects the safety of the member (the larger of b, the smaller the area of shaded area, and the more improbable that a limit state may be exceeded)

f. Serviceability Requirements
- ASD, PD, and LRFD are related to the strength - Excessively deflection is related to the stiffness of the structure

g. Loads on Structures
- Classification of loads (Fig. 3-1)

- Dead load (Tables 3-1 and 3-2)

- Live load (Table 3-3) - Wind loads (Figs. 3-2 and 3-3) - Earthquake forces (Figs. 3-4 and 3-5)

Both must be satisfied in Design

h. Modeling the Structure

- Types of connection and idealized models (Fig. 3-8)

i. Modeling the External loads

- Transformation of the loading (see CD eStructure)

g. Loads on Structures
- Classification of loads (Fig. 3-1)
- Dead load (Tables 3-1 and 3-2) - Live load (Table 3-3)

g. Loads on Structures
- Wind loads (Figs. 3-2 and 3-3)

g. Loads on Structures
- Earthquake forces (Figs. 3-4 and 3-5)

h. Modeling the Structures

- Types of connection and idealized models (Fig. 3-9)

a. Landmark Structures (Maumee River Bridge, Toledo, Ohio)

Design: Single Pylon (with glass curtain wall)

Stainless steel clad cables

Concrete Box girder Span (612 ft + 612 ft clearance spans)

a. Landmark Structures (Sunshine Skyway Bridge, Tampa, FL)

Design: Twin Pylons; 1200 ft cable-stayed main span with a single pylon; 175 ft vertical height Total length of 21,878 ft; Twin 40 ft. roadways

a. Landmark Structures (San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge)

Single tower (185 m + 385 m) (2007)

a. Landmark Structures
(Minato Oh-Hashi, Japan) Truss frame design was selected (span: 235 + 510 + 235 m)

b. Structures (Bridges) Steel Girder Bridges

Simple girder Continuous girder Gerber girder

b. Structures (Buildings - Concrete)

b. Structures (Buildings Timber or Steel)

Timber construction

b. Structures (Buildings Bracing)

Lateral system for bracing

Dome structures

c. Structure Faulty (wind engineering)

c. Structure Faulty (wind engineering) Vortex-induced vibration

Great Belt Bridge

c. Structure Faulty (Connection or Joint Failure)

d. Connections

Weld connections

d. Connections

Bolted frame beam connection

Bolted seated beam connection

Bolted stiffened seated beam connection

Bolted connections