LEAD 9341: Intermediate Research Methods

The first swallow from the cup of the natural sciences makes atheistsbut at the bottom of the cup, God is waiting. - Werner Heisenburg, Nobel Prizewinning nuclear physicist

It is only so long as one is intoxicated by individual discoveries that one says, there cant be anything more than this; now we know everything. But as soon as one recognizes the incomparable grandeur of the whole, ones vision penetrates further, and the question arises about a God who is at the origin of all things. Pope Benedict XVI

Dr. Carmody-Bubbs Contact Information

Office Hours: Mondays throughWednesdays by appointment
Contact numbers: Phone: 431-4160 Email (preferred): macarmody-bubb@lake.ollusa.edu (this will also be listed on the lakeonline directory). I will respond to your emails within 24 hours (except Sundays and holidays).

Class Format
Lecture plus questions/discussion and small group exercises. Do not

hesitate to ask a question in class, I only ask that you first raise your hand. If you feel that you need an in-depth explanation, however, please approach me after class.
I base a lot of my powerpoint presentations from your text; however, I

do skip around somewhat. Additionally, I base parts of my lecture on outside materials and texts when I think they add to an explanation of a particular topic. My powerpoint slides will always reference the source of my material.
I typically offer approximate 10 minute breaks about every hour during

the four-hour class period.

Ground Rules
Write well. You must always present yourselves in a scholarly

manner. Even on assignments where you might be graded more on content than writing, points will be taken off for poor grammar, etc.
Dont plagiarize!

Must use lakeonlineI prefer electronic submissions, but paper

assignments will be accepted if you have problems submitting on line.

Lakeonline
You must use this.
All important dates, due dates, announcement, etc. will be

posted on Lakonline (aka webct/blackboard).

I require that assignments be handed in electronically, via

lakeonline (except in instances of technical difficulties).

Tips on the Course

Read the assigned material carefully before class. Really take time

with the Critical Thinking exercises at the end of the chapters.

Relax, and try not to be intimidated by the words research mehtods

and statistics". Even if you are somewhat uncomfortable with math, the concepts and tests we will be discussing are really more about logic. In the real world, you'll use computer programs to do the actual equations most of the time. You won't be doing a lot of calculations or solving equations. What you do need to know is the logic behind the research methods and the statistical tests. You really need to understand what tests to use and why, and you need to be able to interpret the results. This is really what you should focus upon in in this class.

Chapter One
The Role of Social Research

Applications
We will be using several research articles in our small group

discussions and exercises to illustrate and elucidate concepts learned in the text.

 Why is understanding , evaluating and being able to conduct good

research important to Leadership Studies?

Is observation and experience enoughwhy or why not?
Bias / probability

Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Tenacity (also called Tradition)

What is it? Do you have any real-life examples? Myths, wivestales, prejudice Why does it sometimes work: Observation is the first step in the experimental processwe are hard-wired to look for patternssee correlations.problem is with drawing a cause from a correlation.later

Ways to Acquire Knowledge (cont)

Authority

What is it? Trust and authority.importance of credibility Logical fallacy of appeal to authority
Problems with tenacity , authority and experience?
inability (or unwillingness) of tenacity and authority to change in the

face of contradictory evidence (Davis and Smith, 2005, p. 5). Confirmation Bias Examples?

Ways to Acquire Knowledge (cont)

Experience

If you are color-blind or tone-deaf, your perception of the world is altered and your knowledge base may not be accurate. Even normal individuals under normal conditions may see the world differently. Our past experiences and culture may make some events and behaviors seem more important than others (Davis and Smith, 2005, p. 5). What do the authors mean by these statements and why are they important? What do we pay attention to?..Examples? Things that stand out.cocktail party effect; American pilot in Germany story

Ways to Acquire Knowledge (cont)

Reason and Logic

This approach is based on the premise that we can apply reason and logic to a situation in order to gain knowledge and understanding (Davis and Smith, 2005, p. 5).

Historical perspective?
Mathematically based..sets.
Science

What is it? Well discuss in a moment how logic and scientific methodology are related.

The Scientific Approach

The Key Elements of the Scientific Approach:

Objective measurements of the phenomenon under consideration. (systematic) The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by other individuals (systematic and replicable). Self-correction of errors and faulty reasoning (based on theory). Exercising control to rule out the influence of unwanted factors. (Davis and Smith, 2005, p. 6)
The scientific method attempts to provide objective information that

anyone who wishes to repeat the observation in question can verify (Davis and Smith, 2005, p. 6). What are the important points in this statement?

Experimental/Scientific Methodology

Theory: a group of logically organized (deductively related) laws (Marx, 1973, p. 9) Two Functions of a Theory:
1) 2) Goal Function: summarize and integrate existing knowledge Tool Function: A good theory goes beyond the goal function to suggest new relationships and make new predictions (Christenson).

Arguments (Logic)
When developing and testing a hypothesis (different from a

theory), you are building and then testing an argument.

Arguments are divided into 2 types:

Inductive : infer general from particular Deductive: infer particular from general (note: Hypotheses are primarily inductive; theories actually have elements of both induction & deduction)

Arguments (Logic)
A deductive argument is one whose premises are claimed to provide

conclusive grounds for the truth of its conclusions (Copi, 1982, p 177).
Every deductive argument is either valid or invalid: How do you determine if an argument is valid? If the conclusion that follows the premises (preceding statements) is the only one that a person can reach, if the premises are true.

What is the difference between truth and validity? An argument can be valid, even if the premises are not true. However, for an argument to be sound, it must be valid AND the premises must be true.

Sample (valid) Deductive Argument

All humans are mortal Socrates is human Therefore, Socrates is mortal

(Copi, 1982, p. 52)

This argument is valid because, if it is true that all humans are mortal, and if it is true that Socrates is human, then you can draw no other conclusion than that Socrates is a mortal. This argument is also sound, because the premises are true. All humans are, in fact, mortal and Socrates is (or was) human.

Sample Inductive Arguments

All cows are mammals and have lungs All horses are mammals and have lungs All humans are mammals and have lungs Therefore, all mammals PROBABLY have lungs.
(Copi, 1982, p. 52)

Sample Inductive Arguments (cont)

Hitler was a dictator and was ruthless Stalin was a dictator and was ruthless Castro is a dictator Therefore, Castro is probably ruthless
(Copi, 1982, p. 52)

Truth and Validity

Deductive Argument All dogs are black Molly is a dog Therefore, Molly is black Valid?
This argument is, in fact, valid. If all dogs are black and if Molly is a dog, then you can draw no other conclusion than that Molly is black.

True?
The premises are not true (All dogs are not black), so even though the argument is valid, it is not sound.

Truth and Validity (cont)

You dont always know if an argument is sound because you dont always know if the premises are true.
For example, in the previous example of Molly, you dont know if Molly is a dog or not. While you may not always be able to determine whether or not an argument is sound (I.e. it is both valid and the premises are true), you can always determine whether or not its valid. Why is this important?

Logic and Scientific Methodology

How does all this relate to scientific methodology?

See Figure 2.2 and 2.3 on pps. 41-42 in Wolfer (2007).

Scientific Methodology
Observe ---- formulate hypotheses --test hypotheses

Again, logic is involved in both the formulation of hypotheses

(inductive reasoning) and the testing of hypotheses (deductive reasoning).

 When formulating a hypothesis, you are taking several specific observations

and inferring something general about your area of interest (inductive reasoning).
For example, say you have observed that several primary students (several

particular observations) who underwent a new reading program increased their grades in that subject. You might hypothesize that that particular program would enhance reading performance for all students (the generalization).
You now want to test this hypothesis, so you now have a generalized statement

(Reading program A will enhance reading performance for primary school students) and you are now going to observe, under controlled circumstances, individual or particular scores.so you are now going from the general to specific observations (deductive logic).

Scientific Methodology (cont)

Step 1: Identify Problem and Formulate Hypothesis(es)

4 sources from which problems originate: Theories Everyday life / observations Practical issues Past research

Scientific Methodology (cont)

Step 2: Design Experiment or Non-Experimental Research Study

Experimental: Manipulate the Independent Variable (IV) and measure the Dependent Variable (DV). Everything else, you Control. What you cannot control, you Randomize. Non-Experimental: careful measurement of existing groups (often through surveys, observation, etc). Any time you measure existing groups (male vs. female; older generation vs. younger, etc, it is non-experimental because you have not manipulated anything; you are just measuring).

Scientific Methodology (cont)

Step 3 : Conduct Experiment (Manipulate; i.e., assign to groups and

Measure) or Research Study (Measure differences among preexisting groups)

Step 4 (Test Hypotheses Stats)

Scientific Methodology (cont)

Step 5 (Report Results)
Format of Any Scientific Report:

Introduction The dissertation is a specific type of research report, so it also includes a review of the literature as a specific section Methods (Subjects/Participants, Apparatus/Instruments, Procedures, Research Design/Methodology) Results Discussion

Scientific Methodology (cont)

We talked about some of the potential problems with other

methods of knowledge acquisition (tenacity, experience, etc)..

How does the scientific method avoid some of the problems associated with tenacity, authority, experience, etc?

Can you still encounter problems with the scientific method? How?

Specific Components of the Scientific Method (Review)

Objectivity

Empirical observations Operational definitions

Replication

What is it and why is it important?

Self Correction

What is it and why is it important?

Problem Formulation
Whats the hardest part of problem formulation?

Coming up with a manageable / realistic study

How do we (researchers) use a Review of the Literature to help

formulate research question(s)? To see what is already known about the topic To see what research gaps need to be filled To see where conflicting findings might exist

Hypothesis Formulation
What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a statement that researchers can empirically test. Notice the choice of words here: A hypothesis is a statement about how two variables are related. It is not a question and, to that end, it is different from a research question that is usually broad and does not specifically link two or more specific concepts. Hypotheses consist of independent and dependent variables. The dependent variable is the outcome you are interested in studying the effect. The independent variable is the variable that is producing a change in the dependent variable the cause (Wolfer, 2007, p. 44) -- My note: I dont like calling it the cause.

Operationalization
Defining something in terms of how you are going to

measure it..
Frequently, the terms that need to be operationalized are

those that appear in a hypothesis or research question (Wolfer, 2007, p. 45).

Method of Observation
Which method a researcher chooses depends largely on the research

question, the concepts being studied, and real-life considerations such as time and money. Some methods are better suited for some topics than others. (Wolfer, 2007, p. 46).
Considerations?

The nature of the research Resources (practicality) Access to subjects/participants

Measurement
Measures are also frequently called variables because

they are free to vary. In other words, for each measure, there is more than one possible response that people may select; consequently, what people can say varies (hence the name) (Wolfer, 2007, p. 47).
Can also borrow... Another purpose for literature

reviewespecially with surveys.

Data Gathering
Sample vs Populationwhats the difference?
What is a random sample and why do we use it? (Discuss

in more detail in Chpt 5).

Coding and Analysis

Coding.discuss Analysisreported in the Results section.tables, graphs,

and specific format for reporting.

Empirical Generalizations: The Discussion Section

During this section, researchers often remind readers of
the limitations of the research and any research flaws that may unavoidably exist. (Wolfer, 2007, p. 49).

Purposes of Social Research

Whats the difference between qualitative and quantitative

research?
Exploratory Description Explanation Evaluation

Being a critical reader

What does this mean?
Discuss excerpts p. 19 and 20 Wolfer (2007)

Evaluating Research Titles

Pps.24 27 Small group exercise articles (handouts in class)

Situational Awareness and Transformational Leadership in Senior Military Leaders; Transformational Leadership in Labor Organizations; Leadership in Labor Organizations; Motivating Peak Performance: Leadership Behaviors that Stimulate Employee Motivation and Behavior