Diffusion

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What is Diffusion ?
Suppose that there is a concentration
gradient in space in an ensemble of
particles.
The particles tend to move from a region
of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
This is done so as to destroy the non-
uniformity of the concentration.
This phenomenon is known as Diffusion.
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Diffusion Current Density
It is possible to obtain non-uniform
concentration of electrons (or holes) in
semiconductors (as we shall see in a PN-
Junction).
Let the concentration of holes p vary with
the distance x in semiconductor.
Let the concentration gradient be dp/dx.
If dp/dx is negative, obviously the hole
concentration decreases with increase in
x.
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Although the holes move in a random
fashion due to their thermal energy, a
diffusive flow of holes exist in the positive
x-direction.
This flow of holes results in a diffusion
current in the positive x-direction.
Note that the diffusion does not arise from
the mutual repulsion among charged
particles of like sign, but it is the result of a
statistical phenomenon.

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Diffusion Current Density
Diffusion hole-current density J
p
is proportional
to the concentration gradient dp/dx and is
expressed as



This is sometimes referred to as Ficks Law.
Here q is the magnitude of the electronic charge
and D
P
is called the Diffusion Constant or
Diffusion Coefficient or Diffusivity.

dx
dp
qD J
p p
=
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Since dp/dx is negative, J
p
is positive in
the positive x-direction.
In SI units, q is in coulomb, dp/dx is in m
-4

and J
p
is in A/m
2
.
What are the units of diffusivity D
p
?
Ans. m
2
/s.

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Similarly, the electron-current density J
n

can be written by replacing p by n, D
p
by
D
n
and the minus sign by the plus sign, as



It is possible for both a potential gradient
and concentration gradient to exist
simultaneously along the positive x-
direction within a semiconductor.
dx
dn
qD J
n n
=
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In such a situation, the total current is the
sum of the drift current and the diffusion
current.
Thus,

dx
dp
qD E pq J
p p p
=
dx
dn
qD E nq J
n n n
+ =
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Einstein Relationship
Since both diffusion and mobility are statistical
thermodynamic phenomena, D and are not
independent. The relationship between them is
given by the Einstein equation:



where V
T
is the voltage equivalent of
temperature, defined by,
11600
T
q
T k
V
T
=
T
n
n
p
p
V
D
D
= =

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Here is the Boltzman Constant in J/K. (k is the
Boltzman Constant in eV/K).
=1.60X10
-19
k

At room temperature (300 K), V
T
= 0.026 V
= 26 mV

k
Diffusion 11
Hall Effect
If a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carrying
a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic
field B, an electric field c is induced in the
direction perpendicular to both I & B according to
Lorentz force . This phenomenon is known as
Hall Effect.
Diffusion
12
Hall Effect Contd.
X ( I )
As shown in the figure, If
I is in x direction & B is in the z
direction
Then
a force will be exerted in the Y
direction on the current carriers that
may be electrons/holes dependent
on the semiconductor type.
Note: right hand SCREW RULE


Y (f)
Z (B)
l
d
1
2
Diffusion 13
Hall Voltage
Y (c)
X ( I )
Z (B)
l
d
1
2
If the semiconductor is of n-type-
The current will be carried by electrons.
These electrons will accumulate on side-1.
As a result side-1 will become negatively charged
w.r.t. to side-2.
This results a positive potential between terminal
2 & terminal 1 known as Hall voltage (V
H
).
If the semiconductor is of p-type-
The current will be carried by holes.
These holes will accumulate on side-1.
As a result side-1 will become positively charged
w.r.t. to side-2.
This results in negative Hall voltage (V
H
).
i.e., If Hall voltage (V
H
) is +ve semiconductor is of n-type otherwise it is of p-type.
Diffusion 14
Diffusion 15







In the equilibrium state the electric field intensity E due
to hall effect exert a force on the carrier which just
balances the magnetic force, or
qE = B.q.v
d
Where, q= magnitude of the charge on carrier
v
d
= drift velocity
E=V
H
/d
Where, d is the distance between surface 1 and 2.
Current Density J=I/(w.d),


Diffusion 16
t) Coefficien Effect (Hall
1
w.d) (A ,
.
. .
.
H
H
d
H
R
n.q B.I
.w V
nqw
I
B
nqA
I
d B
d v B
d E V
= =
= =
=
=
=
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PN Junction
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Diodes
The diode is a 2-terminal device.
A diode ideally conducts in
only one direction.
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Diode Characteristics
Conduction Region Non-Conduction Region
The voltage across the diode is 0 V
The current is infinite
The forward resistance is defined as
R
F
= V
F
/ I
F
The diode acts like a short
All of the voltage is across the diode
The current is 0 A
The reverse resistance is defined as
R
R
= V
R
/ I
R
The diode acts like open
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Semiconductor Materials
Materials commonly used in the development of
semiconductor devices:
Silicon (Si)
Germanium (Ge)
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
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Doping
The electrical characteristics of silicon and germanium are improved
by adding materials in a process called doping.

There are just two types of doped semiconductor materials:

n-type
p-type
n-type materials contain an excess of conduction band electrons.
p-type materials contain an excess of valence band holes.
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p-n Junctions
One end of a silicon or germanium crystal can be doped as a p-
type material and the other end as an n-type material.

The result is a p-n junction.
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p-n Junctions
At the p-n junction, the excess
conduction-band electrons on the
n-type side are attracted to the
valence-band holes on the p-type
side.

The electrons in the n-type
material migrate across the
junction to the p-type material
(electron flow).

The electron migration results in
a negative charge on the p-type
side of the junction and a positive
charge on the n-type side of the
junction.
The result is the formation of a
depletion region around the
junction.
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Diode Operating Conditions
A diode has three operating conditions:
No bias
Forward bias
Reverse bias
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Diode Operating Conditions
No external voltage is applied: V
D
= 0 V
No current is flowing: I
D
= 0 A
Only a modest depletion region exists
No Bias
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External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in
the opposite polarity of the p- and n-type materials.
Diode Operating Conditions
Reverse Bias
The reverse voltage causes the
depletion region to widen.
The electrons in the n-type material
are attracted toward the positive
terminal of the voltage source.
The holes in the p-type material are
attracted toward the negative
terminal of the voltage source.
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Diode Operating Conditions
Forward Bias
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in
the same polarity as the p- and n-type materials.
The forward voltage causes the
depletion region to narrow.
The electrons and holes are pushed
toward the p-n junction.
The electrons and holes have
sufficient energy to cross the p-n
junction.
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Actual Diode Characteristics
Note the regions for no
bias, reverse bias, and
forward bias conditions.

Carefully note the scale
for each of these
conditions.
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Two currents through a diode:
Majority and Minority Carriers
Majority Carriers

The majority carriers in n-type materials are electrons.
The majority carriers in p-type materials are holes.
Minority Carriers

The minority carriers in n-type materials are holes.
The minority carriers in p-type materials are electrons.
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The Zener region is in the diodes
reverse-bias region.
At some point the reverse bias voltage
is so large the diode breaks down and
the reverse current increases
dramatically.
Zener Region
The maximum reverse voltage that wont
take a diode into the zener region is
called the peak inverse voltage or peak
reverse voltage.
The voltage that causes a diode to enter
the zener region of operation is called the
zener voltage (V
Z
).
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The point at which the diode changes from no-bias condition
to forward-bias condition occurs when the electrons and
holes are given sufficient energy to cross the p-n junction.
This energy comes from the external voltage applied across
the diode.
Forward Bias Voltage
The forward bias voltage required for a:

gallium arsenide diode ~ 1.2 V
silicon diode ~ 0.7 V
germanium diode ~ 0.3 V
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As temperature increases it adds energy to the diode.
It reduces the required forward bias voltage for forward-
bias conduction.
It increases the amount of reverse current in the reverse-
bias condition.
It increases maximum reverse bias avalanche voltage.
Germanium diodes are more sensitive to temperature
variations than silicon or gallium arsenide diodes.
Temperature Effects
32
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Semiconductors react differently to DC and AC currents.

There are three types of resistance:

DC (static) resistance
AC (dynamic) resistance
Average AC resistance
Resistance Levels
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DC (Static) Resistance
For a specific applied DC voltage
V
D
, the diode has a specific
current I
D
, and a specific
resistance R
D
.
D
D
D
I
V
R =
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The resistance depends on the amount of current (I
D
) in the diode.
The voltage across the diode is fairly constant (26 mV for 25C).
r
B
ranges from a typical 0.1 O for high power devices to 2 O for low
power, general purpose diodes. In some cases r
B
can be ignored.
AC (Dynamic) Resistance
B
D
d
r
I
r + = '
mV 26
=
'
r
d
In the forward bias region:
In the reverse bias region:
The resistance is effectively infinite. The diode acts like an open.
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AC resistance can be
calculated using the current
and voltage values for two
points on the diode
characteristic curve.
Average AC Resistance
pt. to pt.
d
d
av
I
V
r =
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Diode Equivalent Circuit
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In reverse bias, the depletion layer is very large. The diodes strong positive and
negative polarities create capacitance, C
T
. The amount of capacitance depends
on the reverse voltage applied.

In forward bias storage capacitance or diffusion capacitance (C
D
) exists as the
diode voltage increases.
Diode Capacitance
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Reverse recovery time is the time required for a diode to stop
conducting once it is switched from forward bias to reverse bias.
Reverse Recovery Time (t
rr
)
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1. Forward Voltage (V
F
) at a specified current and temperature
2. Maximum forward current (I
F
) at a specified temperature
3. Reverse saturation current (I
R
) at a specified voltage and
temperature
4. Reverse voltage rating, PIV or PRV or V(BR), at a specified
temperature
5. Maximum power dissipation at a specified temperature
6. Capacitance levels
7. Reverse recovery time, t
rr
8. Operating temperature range
Diode Specification Sheets
Data about a diode is presented uniformly for many different diodes.
This makes cross-matching of diodes for replacement or design
easier.

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The anode is abbreviated A
The cathode is abbreviated K
Diode Symbol and Packaging
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Diode Testing
Diode checker
Ohmmeter
Curve tracer
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Diode Checker
Gallium arsenide ~ 1.2 V
Silicon diode ~ 0.7 V
Germanium diode ~ 0.3 V
Many digital multimeters have a diode checking function.
The diode should be tested out of circuit.

A normal diode exhibits its forward voltage:
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An ohmmeter set on a low Ohms scale can be used to test a
diode. The diode should be tested out of circuit.
Ohmmeter
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Curve Tracer
A curve tracer displays the characteristic curve of a diode in the
test circuit. This curve can be compared to the specifications of
the diode from a data sheet.
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Other Types of Diodes
Zener diode
Light-emitting diode
Diode arrays
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A Zener is a diode operated in reverse bias
at the Zener voltage (V
Z
).

Common Zener voltages are between 1.8 V
and 200 V
Zener Diode
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Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
An LED emits photons when it is forward biased.
These can be in the infrared or visible spectrum.
The forward bias voltage is usually in the range of 2 V to 3 V.
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Multiple diodes can be
packaged together in an
integrated circuit (IC).

Common Anode
Common Cathode
A variety of combinations
exist.

Diode Arrays
49