Index Properties

Index properties and soil classification
H Prashanth Reddy

Properties which give information of engineering properties and help in classifying the soil are called index properties
Important Index properties Soil color, soil structure, soil texture, particle shape, grain specific gravity, water content, insitu unit weight, density index, particle size distribution, and consistency limits

Soil color: Manganese compounds and decayed organic matter impart black colour to the soil. Green and blue colours may be imparted by famous compounds such as pyrite. Quartz, kaolinite and a few other clay minerals may induce grey and white colour. Organic matter imparts dark color.

Particle shape The particle shape of sands and silts may be described by terms such as angular, subangular, sub-rounded, rounded and wellrounded. The clay minerals, kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite, show sheet-like molecular structure and flaky particle shape.

Specific gravity of soil solids Specific gravity of the soil solids is useful in the determination of void-ratio, degree of saturation and unit weight of soil. Specific gravity should be computed very precisely.

Specific gravity of some soils

General procedure to measure specific gravity
Pycnometer (500 cc)



Water content Water content or moisture content has a direct bearing on its strength and stability. Water content may range from hygroscopic moisture to sufficient to fill all the voids in it.

Methods to determine water content (i) Oven drying method (ii) Pycnometer method (iii) Rapid moisture tester method Oven drying method Heat the soil sample for 24 hours at 105o C

Pycnometer method (i) This method is used when the Gs is known (ii) quick method (iii) suitable for coarse grained solids

Rapid moisture tester method The principle of operation is based on reaction between calcium carbide and soil moisture. The wet soil sample is placed in a sealed container with calcium carbide, and the acetyline gas produced exerts pressure on diaphragm at the top, the pressure is correlated to water content.

Density Index Density index (ID or Dr) indicates the relative compactness of soil mass. Used for coarse grained soils or sands
ID is zero if the soil in its loosest state ID is 1.0 if the soil is in its densest state

ID =
e Gs w 1
To compute density index, specific gravity of solids must be known.

Void ratio and density index relation

Representative values of Density Index and typical values of unit weights

Insitu unit weight The insitu unit weight refers to the unit weight of a soil in undisturbed condition. Insitu unit weight is made on borrow pit soils to estimate volume of soil required for filling embankments Insitu unitweight is made on after soil filled in embankments to determine compaction is adequate.

Methods to estimate insitu weight. (1) sand replacement method (2) core cutter method

Sand replacement method (principle) Obtaining the volume of the soil excavated by filling in the hole in-situ from which it is excavated, with sand, previously calibrated for its unit weight, and thereafter determining the weight of the sand required to fill the hole.

The apparatus consists of the sand pouring cylinder tray with a central circular hole, container for calibration, balance, scoop, etc.

The procedure consists of (i) calibration of the cylinder, (ii) the measurement of the unit weight of the soil. Calibration of the cylinder The cylinder is filled with sand almost to be top and the weight of the cylinder with the sand is taken (W1).

The sand is run out of the cylinder into the conical portion by pulling out the shutter. When no further sand runs out, the shutter is closed. The weight of the cylinder with the remaining sand is found (W2). Weight of sand occupying conical portion, Wc= (W1 W2)

The cylinder is placed centrally above the calibrating container such that the bottom of the conical portion coincides with the top of the container. There sand is allowed to run into the container as well as the conical portion until both are filled, as indicated by the fact that no further sand runs out; then the shutter is closed.

Weight of cylinder + sand, after running sand into the conical portion and calibrating container = W3 Weight of sand occupying conical portion and calibrating container = (W2 W3) Weight of sand filling the calibrating container Wcc = (W2 W3) Wc Volume of the calibrating container = Vcc Unit weight of the sand (s) = Wcc/Vcc

(ii) Measurement of Unit Weight of the Soil The site at which the in-situ unit weight is to be determined is cleaned and leveled. A test hole, about 10 cm diameter and for about the depth of the calibrating container (15 cm), is made at the site. the excavated soil is collected and its weight is found (W).

The sand pouring cylinder is filled with sand to about 3/4 capacity and is placed over the hole, after having determined its initial weight with sand (W4 ), and the sand is allowed to run into it. The shutter is closed when not further movement of sand takes place. The weight of the cylinder and remaining sand is found (W5).

Weight sand occupying the test hole and the conical portion = (W4 W5) Weight of sand occupying the test hole, Ws = (W4 W5) Wc Volume of test hole, V= Ws/s
In-situ unit weight of the soil (), = W/V

Dry density can be obtained by knowing the moisture content.

Core-cutter Method This method is suitable for soft cohesive soils
The core-cutter is 10 cm in diameter and 12.5 cm in length. The dolly is 2. cm long. The bottom 1 cm of the ring is sharpened into a cutting edge.

The empty weight of the core-cutter is (W1 ). The weight of the core-cutter and the soil is (W2). The weight of the soil in the core-cutter, W = (W2 W1). The volume of this soil is the same as that of the internal volume of the cutter, V. The in-situ unit weight of the soil, , is given by W/V Dry density of the soil can be estimated by knowing water content.

Particle size distribution Particle size distribution test determines the range of sizes of particles in the soil and the percentage of particles in each of these size ranges. The particle-size distribution is determined in two stages: (i) Sieve analysis, for the coarse fraction (size > 75) (ii) Sedimentation analysis or wet analysis, for the fine fraction (size < 75)

The Indian standard classifies particles lying between as: 80 mm to 4.75 mm ------------Gravel 4.75 mm to 0.075 mm --------- Sand 0.075 mm to 0.002 mm ---------Silt Less than 0.002 mm ------------------ Clay

The sieve sizes are given in terms of the number of openings per inch. The number of openings per inch varies according to different standards. Thus, an ASTM 60 sieve has 60 openings per inch width with each opening of 0.250 mm.

Sieve analysis A series of sieves having different-size openings are stacked with the larger sizes over the smaller. A receiver is kept at the bottom and a cover is kept at the top of the assembly. The soil sample to be tested is dried, lumps are broken, and the sample is passed through the series of sieves by shaking. An automatic sieve-shaker, run by an electric motor, may be used; about 10 to 15 minutes of shaking is considered adequate.

The percentage material finer than a sieve size may be got by subtracting this from 100. The resulting data are conventionally presented as a Particle-size distribution curve(or Grainsize distribution curve) plotted on semi-log coordinates. where the sieve size is on a horizontal logarithmic scale, and the percentage by weight of the size smaller than a particular sieve-size is on a vertical arithmetic scale.

Particle size distribution curve

A steep slope of the curve in the diagram indicates a uniform soil, a shallow slope of the diagram indicates that the soil contains particles of strongly different grain sizes. The grain size distribution can be characterized by the quantities D60 and D10. These indicate that 60 %, respectively 10 % of the particles (expressed as weights) is smaller than that diameter.

Coefficient of uniformity (Cu): Cu=D60/D10 Cu <= 5 soil is defined as uniform, 5 < Cu < 15 soil is defined as non-uniform, Cu > 15 soil is defined as well graded.

The material passing the bottom-most sieve, which is usually the 75 sieve, is used for conducting sedimentation analysis for the fine fraction.

Sedimentation analysis The sedimentation analysis is based on Stokes Law which gives equation for terminal velocity of a sphere falling through an infinite liquid medium. The particles descend at velocities related to their sizes.

v is terminal velocity of the particle (m/s) D is diameter of particle (m) s = unit weight of the material falling (kg/m3) = unit weight of the liquid medium (kg/m3) = dynamic viscosity of the liquid medium kg sec/m2
For very small particles the velocity may be very small, the test may take rather long.

For G = 2.67; settling through water, terminal velocity v ~ 91D2 Stokes Law is considered valid for particle diameters ranging from 0.2 to 0.0002 mm. For particle sizes greater than 0.2 mm, turbulent motion is set up for particle sizes smaller than 0.002 mm, Brownian motion is set up. In both these cases Stokes law is not valid.

Consistency of clay soils Plasticiy of a soil is defined as a property which allows permanent deformation (without elasticity) of soil without noticeable change in volume. Soil is said to be in a plastic state when the water content is such that it can change its shape without producing surface cracks.

Atterburg limits. Depending on the water content soil may appear in four states. (solid, semi-solid state, plastic and liquid states). Soil behavior changes at Atterburg limits. Atterburg limits are used to distinguish between silt and clay soils. These tests are mainly used for clay soils to study shrinkage and expansion properties in preliminary studies of building any structure.

Consistency limits or Atterburg limits Liquid Limit (LL or wL) Liquid limit is defined as minimum water content at which the soil tends to flow as a liquid. LL is boundary between plastic state to liquid state Plastic limit (PL or wp) Plastic limit is defined as minimum water content at which change in shape of the soil is accompanied by visible cracks. i.e. when worked upon soil crumbles PL is boundary between plastic state and semi solid state

Shrinkage Limit (SL or ws) Shrinkage limit is the maximum water content at which further reduction in water content will not cause a decrease in volume of the soil mass. Shrinkage limit is the minimum water content at which the soil is fully saturated.
SL is boundary between semi-solid state to the solid state.

Plasticity Index (PI or IP) Plasticity index is range of water content in which the soil exhibits plastic properties. It is also defined as difference between liquid and plastic limits. PI (or IP) = (LL-PL) = (wL - wP) Material said to be non-plastic when its plastic limit cannot be determined. Plastic limit of sands is zero. (wL = wP)

Plasticity characteristics

Shrinkage Index (SI or Is) Shrinkage index is defined as the difference between the plastic and shrinkage limits of a soil. SI or Is = (PL-SL) = (wP-wS) Consistency Index (CI or IC) Consistency index is defined as the ratio of the difference between liquid limit and the natural water content to the plasticity index of a soil.

CI (or IC) =
wL w IP
If IC=0 , w=LL If IC=1 , w=PL If IC > 1 , the soil is in semi solid state (stiff) If IC < 0, the natural water content is greater than liquid limit. Soil behaves like a liquid. Liquidity Index (LI or IL) Liquidity index is the ratio of the difference between the natural water content and plastic limit to the plasticity index.

LI (or IL) = w wP
IP
IL = 0 , w = PL; IL = 1, w = LL; IL > 1 , the soil is in liquid state IL < 0 , the soil is in semi solid state
wL w IP
CI + LI = 1;
w wP IP
=1

Using consistency and plasticity indices soil stiffness has been classified as
Laboratory methods for the determination of consistency limits

The liquid limit is determined in the laboratory with the aid of the standard mechanical liquid limit device, designed by Arthur Casagrande and adopted by the ISI.

Casagrande Apparatus
Casagrande Apparatus

Liquid limit method Soil is placed into the metal cup portion of the device and a groove is made down its center with a standardized tool of 12-13.5 millimetres (0.53 in) width. The soil is 1 cm thick in the cup The cup is repeatedly dropped from 10mm onto a hard rubber base at a rate of 120 blows per minute. The number of blows for the groove to close is recorded.

The moisture content at which it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the groove to close over a distance of 13.5 millimeters (0.53 in) is defined as the liquid limit.
Slope of the curve If is called as flow index

Cone penetration method to determine liquid limit
Cone penetrometer

Cone penetrometer 1. In the case of clay soils, the soil shall be kept wet and allowed to stand for a sufficient time (24 hrs.) to ensure uniform distribution of moisture. 2. The wet soil paste shall then be transferred to the cylindrical trough of the cone penetrometer and leveled to the top of the trough.

Cone penetrometer The penetrometer shall be so adjusted that the cone point just touches the surface of the soil paste in the trough. The penetrometer scale shall then be adjusted to zero and the vertical rod released so that the cone is allowed to penetrate into the soil paste under its weight.

Cone penetrometer The penetration shall be noted after 30 seconds from the release of the cone. If the penetration < 20 mm, add more water Test is repeated till a penetration of 20 30 mm is obtained. Moisture content of test specimen is measured in each trial. The liquid limit is moisture content of test specimen corresponding to 25 mm penetration. It can be obtained by using following formula

Cone penetrometer Liquid limit formula for cone penetration test wL is liquid limit of sample w is moisture content of sample with mm penetration.
Shear strength at liquid limit is 0.176 N/cm2 under the load of 1.48 N weight.

Determination of plastic limit Porcelain evaporating dish about 12 cm in diameter. Flat glass plate (20cm x 15 cm) for a surface for rolling. A rod of 3mm diameter and about 10 cm long.

Plastic limit determination

Plastic limit determination 0.2 N soil shall be mixed with water to extent the soil becomes plastic. For wet clays 24 hours time shall be given to ensure uniform wetting. A ball shall be formed and rolled between fingers and glass plate. The rate of rolling is 80-90 stokes for minute (one stroke is one complete movement of hand forward and backward)

Plastic limit determination Rolling is continued until thread diameter become 3 mm. Knead the thread into a ball again. Procedure is repeated until 3mm thread crumbles. At this time, measure the water content in the crumbled pieces, which gives plastic limit.

Toughness index (IT) Toughness index = IP/If Toughness index is indicative of the shearing strength of the soil at the plastic limit. It varies from 0-3 for clays. Soil becomes pieces with a little effort if its toughness index is lessthan 1

Determination of shrinkage limit

Shrinkage ratio (R)
Volumetric shrinkage (Vs)

Degree of Shrinkage (Sr)

Activity of clays Presence of even small amounts of certain clay minerals such as montmorillonite can have significant effect on the properties of soil. Montmorillonite can be identified using X-ray diffraction and electron microscope. Activity (A) is defined as the ratio of plasticity index to the percentage of clay sizes. A=IP/c; c = % of clay sizes, i.e, particle size> 0.002 mm

Activity classification

Unconfined compressive strength of clays The unconfined compressive strength (qu) of a clay soil is obtained by subjecting an unsupported cylindrical clay sample to axial compressive load, and conducting the test until the sample fails in shear. In the field, a pocket penetrometer may be used for quick and easy determination of unconfined compressive strength (qu)

Failure of specimens due to unconfined compressive strength

Range of unconfined compressive strength (qu) and consistency (Das, 2002)

Sensitivity of clays Sensitivity (St) of clay is defined as the ratio of its unconfined compression strength in the natural or undisturbed state to that in the remolded state without any change in the water content.
St = qu(undisturbed)/qu(remoulded)

Sensitivity classification

Thixotropy of clays (montomorillonite) Process of softening caused by remoulding of followed by a time dependent return of the original strength of a clay sample at same water content is called Thixotropy. Process of softening caused by remoulding. Generally clays with flocculent structure prone to thixotropy. Thixotropy is due to destruction of structure.

Thixotropy Thixotropy is beneficial in certain situations such as pile driving, clay becomes soft due to disturbance. Pile driving should be completed before recovery of strength. Thixotropic fluids used in drilling operations are called drilling muds.

References Geotechnical Engineering -C Venkatramaiah New AGe International publishers

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Index properties and soil classification