1

Prepared by:
Nur Maizatul Azra Mukhtar
JSG -UiTM Negeri Pulau Pinang
Chapter 9
THERMODYNAMICS
LESSON LEARNING OUTCOMES
2
After studying this chapter, you should :
1.Able to calculate temperatures in Celcius and Farenheit scale.
2.Able to write and apply the equations for linear area and volume
expansion in thermal expansion problems.
3. Able to write and apply the equations for the Gas Law and the Ideal
Gas Law
4. Able to write and solve the problems related to the Thermodynamics
Law and heat engine

Chapter 13, 14, 15 in your textbook,
9.1 Temperature, thermal expansion and the ideal Gas
Law
9.2 Heat: Specific heat capacity, calorimetry and latent
heat
9.3 The first law of thermodynamics
9.4 Thermodynamics Processes and the first law
9.5 The second law of thermodynamics
9.6 Heat Engines
Temperature, Thermal
Expansion and Ideal Gas
4
Temperature & Heat
5
Heat is the energy flows due to a temperature difference. Heat always flows
from high temperatures object to low temperatures object.
When two objects have the same temperature, they are in thermal
equilibrium.
Temperature, is a number that is related to the average kinetic energy of the
molecules of a substance. Temperature is not energy. If temperature is
measured in Kelvin degrees, then this number is directly proportional to the
average kinetic energy of the molecules. The faster the motion (the higher the
kinetic energy) of the molecules, the higher the temperature
Temperature is simply a measure of the degree of "hotness" or "coldness"
of a material.
Temperature Scales
6
7
( )
( )
C F/
F
C
C C F/ F
8 . 1
F 32
F 32 8 . 1



=
+ =
T
T
T T
273.15
273.15
K
C
=
+ =
T T
T T
C
K
Fahrenheit/Celsius
Kelvin/Celsius
To convert between Fahrenheit and Celsius scales, use these
equations:
Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids
8
Most objects expand when their temperature increases.
Thermal Expansion
LINEAR VOLUME AREA
( )
0
0 0
0 0
0
1
TL L
TL L L
TL L L
L T L f rom
A = A
A =
A + =
A + =
o
o
o
o
T
L
L
A =
A
o
0
An objects length after its temperature has changed is L
1
( )
0
1 L T L A + = o
o is the coefficient of linear
expansion
where AT = TT
i
and L is the length of the object at a temperature T
i.

Linear Expansion
10
Substance (10
-6
/ C)
Ice (at 0 C) 51
Lead 29
Aluminium 23
Brass 19
Copper 17
Steel 11
Glass (ordinary) 9
Glass (Pyrex) 3.2
Table 9.1: Materials coefficient of linear expansion
11
Example:
An iron bridge girder (Y = 2.010
11
N/m
2
) is constrained between two rock faces
whose spacing doesnt change. At 20.0 C the girder is relaxed. How large a
stress develops in the iron if the sun heats the girder to 40.0 C?
( )
( )( )( )
2 7
1 6 2 11
N/m 10 8 . 4
K 20 K 10 12 N/m 10 0 . 2
A
F
=
=
A =
A
=

T Y
L
L
Y
o
Using Hookes Law:
o
iron
= 1210
6
K
1

T
L
L
o
A =
A
o
From linear expansion,
Consider a 2 m long brass rod and a 1 m long aluminum rod. When the
temperature is 22 C, there is a gap of 1.0 x 10
-3
m separating their ends. No
expansion is possible at the other end of either rod. At what temperature will
the two bars touch?
(o
brass
= 19 x 10
-6
/
o
C, o
aluminum
= 23 x 10
-6
/
o
C)

The change in temperature is the same for both. Both rods will expand when
heated. They will touch when the sum of the two length changes equals the
initial width of the gap. Therefore:

So, the temperature change is

If the original temperature was 22 C, the final temperature is 38.4 C.
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The blue square has an area of L
0
2
.
With a temperature change AT each side of the
square will have a length change of AL = oATL
0
.
L
0

L
0
+AL
Area Expansion
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( )( )
2
0
2
0
2
0
2 2 2
0
2
0
0 0 0 0
2
2
, area new
TL L A
L T TL L A
TL L TL L A
A + ~
A + A + =
A + A + =
o
o o
o o
The fractional change in area is:
T
A
A
A =
A
o 2
0
( ) T A A A + = o 2 1
0
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The fractional change in volume due to a temperature change is:
T
V
V
A =
A
|
0
Volume Expansion
( )
( ) o | |
o
3 1
3 1
0
0
= A + =
A + =
T V V
T V V
New volume,
Molecular Picture of a Gas
16
The number density of particles is N/V where N is the total number of particles
contained in a volume V.
If a sample contains a single element, the number of particles in the sample is
N = M/m. N is the total mass of the sample (M) divided by the mass per
particle (m).
17
One mole of a substance contains the same number of particles as there are
atoms in 12 grams of
12
C. The number of atoms in 12 grams of
12
C is Avogadros
number.
1 23
A
mol 10 022 . 6

= N
18
A carbon-12 atom by definition has a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units
(12 u).
kg 10 66 . 1
g 1000
kg 1
10 6.022
mole 1
mole 12
g 12
27
23

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
This is the conversion factor between the atomic mass unit and kg (1 u =
1.6610
27
kg). N
A
and the mole are defined so that a 1 gram sample of a
substance with an atomic mass of 1 u contains exactly N
A
particles.
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Example (text problem 13.37): Air at room temperature and atmospheric pressure
has a mass density of 1.2 kg/m
3
. The average molecular mass of air is 29.0 u.
How many air molecules are there in 1.0 cm
3
of air?
molecule air per mass average
cm 1.0 in air of mass total
particles of number
3
=
The total mass of air in the given volume is:
kg 10 2 . 1
cm 100
m 1
1
cm 0 . 1
m
kg 2 . 1
6
3
3
3

=
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = V m
20
( )( )
particles 10 5 . 2
kg/u 10 66 . 1 u/particle 0 . 29
kg 10 2 . 1
molecule air per mass average
cm 1.0 in air of mass total
particles of number
19
27
6
3
=

=
=

Example continued:
Absolute Temperature and the
Ideal Gas Law
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T V
Experiments done on dilute gases (a gas where interactions between molecules
can be ignored) show that:
For constant pressure
Charles Law
For constant volume
T P
Gay-Lussacs Law
22
Boyles Law
For constant
temperature
V
P
1

For constant pressure and

temperature
N V
Avogadros Law
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Putting all of these statements together gives the ideal gas law (microscopic
form):
NkT PV =
k = 1.3810
23
J/K is
Boltzmanns constant
The ideal gas law can also be written as (macroscopic form):
nRT PV =
R = N
A
k = 8.31 J/K/mole is the universal
gas constant and n is the number of
moles.
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Example (text problem 13.41): A cylinder in a car engine takes V
i
= 4.5010
2
m
3

of air into the chamber at 30 C and at atmospheric pressure. The piston then
compresses the air to one-ninth of the original volume and to 20.0 times the
original pressure. What is the new temperature of the air?
Here, V
f
= V
i
/9, P
f
= 20.0P
i
, and T
i
= 30 C = 303 K.
i i i
NkT V P =
f f f
NkT V P =
The ideal gas law holds for each
set of parameters (before
compression and after
compression).
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Example continued:
Take the ratio:
i
f
i
f
i i
f f
T
T
NkT
NkT
V P
V P
= =
The final temperature is
( ) K 673 K 303
9
0 . 20
=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
i
i
i
i
i
i
f
i
f
f
V
V
P
P
T
V
V
P
P
T
The final temperature is 673 K = 400 C.
Kinetic Theory of the Ideal Gas
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An ideal gas is a dilute gas where the particles act as point particles with no
interactions except for elastic collisions.
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Gas particles have random motions. Each time a particle collides with the walls of
its container there is a force exerted on the wall. The force per unit area on the
wall is equal to the pressure in the gas.
The pressure will depend on:
The number of gas particles
Frequency of collisions with the walls
Amount of momentum transferred during each collision
Heat
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Heat is energy in transit between two systems at different temperatures. Heat
spontaneously flows from the system at high temperature to the system at low
temperature.
29
An experiment by Joule showed that the quantity of work done on a system or
the same quantity of heat flowing into a system causes the same increase in
the systems internal energy.
Heat is measured in joules or calories. 1 cal = 4.186 J (the mechanical
equivalent of heat); 1 Calorie (used on food packaging) = 1 kcal.
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat
T m
Q
m
C
c
A
= =
30
For many substances, under normal circumstances ATQ. Or Q = CAT where
C is the heat capacity.
The specific heat capacity, or just specific heat, of a substance is the
heat capacity per unit mass.
or
T mc Q A =
31
Example (text problem 14.12): If 125.6 kJ of heat are supplied to 5.0010
2
g of
water at 22 C, what is the final temperature of the water?
( )
( )( )
C 82
C kJ/kg 186 . 4 kg 5 . 0
kJ 125.6
C 22
i f
i f
=

+ =
+ =
= A =
mc
Q
T T
T T mc T mc Q
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Example (text problem 14.19): A 0.400 kg aluminum teakettle contains 2.00 kg of
water at 15.0 C. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of the
water (and kettle) to 100 C?
( )( )( ) kJ. 712 C 85 C kJ/kg 186 . 4 kg 2
w w w w
= = A = T c m Q
The heat needed to raise the temperature of the water to T
f
is
( )( )( ) kJ. 6 . 30 C 85 C kJ/kg 900 . 0 kg 4 . 0
Al Al Al Al
= = A = T c m Q
The heat needed to raise the temperature of the aluminum to T
f
is
Then Q
total
= Q
w
+ Q
Al
= 732 kJ.
Phase Transitions
33
A phase transition occurs whenever a substance changes from one phase
(solid, liquid, or gas) to another.
34
Latent heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to change the
phase of a substance. The energy is used to form/break chemical bonds.
The latent heat of fusion (L
f
) is the heat per unit mass needed to
produce the solid-liquid phase transition.
The latent heat of vaporization (L
v
) is the heat per unit mass needed
to produce the liquid-gas phase transition.
35
Example (R&S 6): A 75 g cube of ice at 10.0 C is placed in 0.500 kg of water at
50.0 C in an insulating container so that no heat is lost to the environment. Will
the ice melt completely? What will be the final temperature of this system?
The heat required to completely melt the ice is
( )( )( ) ( )( )
kJ 27
kJ/kg 7 . 333 kg 075 . 0 C 10 C kJ/kg 1 . 2 kg 075 . 0
f ice ice ice ice ice
=
+ =
+ A = L m T c m Q
The heat required to cool the water to the freezing point is
( )( )( )
kJ 105
C 50 C kJ/kg 186 . 4 kg 5 . 0
w w w w
=
=
A = T c m Q
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Example continued:
Since Q
ice
< Q
water
the ice will completely melt.
To find the final temperature of the system, note that no heat is lost to the
environment; the heat lost by the water is gained by the ice.
( ) ( )
( )
( )
C 4 . 32
kJ 105 kJ 27 0
0
0
0
f
f w w ice
i w w f w w ice f ice ice ice
i w, f w w i ice, f w ice f ice ice ice
ice
=
+ + =
+ + + A =
+ + + A =
+ =
T
T c m m
T c m T c m m L m T c m
T T c m T T c m L m T c m
Q Q
w
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Example (text problem 14.45): Compute the heat of fusion of a substance from
these data: 31.15 kJ will change 0.500 kg of the solid at 21 C to liquid at 327 C,
the melting point. The specific heat of the solid is 0.129 kJ/kg K.
kJ/kg 8 . 22
f
f
=
A
=
+ A =
m
T mc Q
L
mL T mc Q
38
On a phase diagram, the
triple point is the set of P and
T where all three phases can
coexist in equilibrium.
Sublimation is the process by which a solid transitions into a gas (and
gas solid).
39
The critical point marks the end of the vapor pressure curve. A path around
this point (i.e. the path does not cross the curve) does not result in a phase
transition. Past the critical point it is not possible to distinguish between the
liquid and gas phases.
Law of Thermodynamics
40
Zeroth Second First
41
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
If two objects are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third object, then the
two objects are in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
W Q U + = A
42
The first law of thermodynamics says the change in internal energy of a
system is equal to the heat flow into the system plus the work done on the
system (conservation of energy).
43
Internal Energy
44
The internal energy of a system is the sum total of all the energy of all the
molecules in the system. It does not include macroscopic kinetic energy nor
energy due to external interactions (potential energy).
Internal energy does not include:
The kinetic energy of the molecules due to translations, rotations, and
vibrations of the whole or large fraction of the system.
Potential energy due to the interactions of the molecules of the system with
bodies outside of the system (external interactions).
Internal energy includes:
Translational and rotational kinetic energy of the particles due to their
individual motions.
Vibrational kinetic and potential energy
Potential energy due to interactions between particles in the system.
Chemical and nuclear energy (binding energies)
Thermodynamic Processes
45
A state variable describes the state of a system at time t, but it does not reveal
how the system was put into that state.
Examples of state variables: pressure, temperature, volume, number of moles,
and internal energy.
Isothermal
Isochoric
Isobaric
Adiabatic
46
A P-V diagram can be used to represent the state changes of a system,
provided the system is always near equilibrium.
The area under a PV curve
gives the magnitude of the
work done on a system.
W>0 for compression and
W<0 for expansion.
47
An isothermal
process implies
that both P and V
of the gas change
(PVT).
48
49
The second law of thermodynamics
In a closed system, heat flows
from a hot body to a cold body.
Heat Engines
net net
Q W =
50
A heat engine is a device designed to convert disordered energy into
ordered energy. The net work done by an engine during one cycle is equal
to the net heat flow into the engine during the cycle (AU = 0).
51
The efficiency of an engine is defined as
.
input heat
engine by the done net work
in
net
Q
W
e = =
Note: Q
net
= Q
in
Q
out
52
The efficiency of a heat engine can be rewritten as
. 1
input heat
output net work
H
C
H
C H
H
net
Q
Q
Q
Q Q
Q
W
e
=

=
= =
Q
H
= Q hot Q
C
= Q cold
C H net
Q Q W =
net
in
net
in
net work done by the engine
e
heat input
W
Q
W t
(9.15)
Q t
=
=
A
=
A
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