Gradually varied flow

H Prashanth Reddy
Important Definitions

Uniform flow
velocity of the flow is constant with distance

Gradually varied flow
Depth of flow changes gradually with distance.
Acceleration and deceleration of flow is neglected. Only
viscous forces are considered

Rapidly varied flow
Considerable flow depth changes within a short distance.
Viscous forces are neglected and inertial forces are
important





Important Definitions
Normal depth
In uniform flow, flow depth and velocities are
constant, Corresponding flow depth is called
normal depth
Critical depth
The depth at which Froude number (Fr) is equal
to 1 is called critical depth. Corresponding flow is
called critical flow.
If Fr > 1 is called super critical flow
If Fr < 1 is called sub critical flow

Computation of normal depth
Mannings equation


Q = discharge (m
3
/s)
A = cross sectional area of flow (m
2
)
n = mannings roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (m)
S
o
= bed slope(m/m)

2 / 1 3 / 2
1
o
S R
n
A Q =
Computation of critical depth
Solve Froude number equation


Q = discharge (m
3
/s)
A = cross sectional area of flow (m
2
)
T = Top flow width of the channel
g = acceleration due to gravity (m
2
/s)


1
3
2
=
gA
T Q
Importance of classification of
gradually varied flow
To get overall understanding of how the flow
depth varies in a channel
To detect any mistakes made in the flow
computation
Gradually varied flow equation
S
o
= bed slope(m/m)
S
f
= friction slope(m/m)
Fr = Froude number
dy/dx = change depth wrt to x


2
1 Fr
S S
dx
dy
f o

=
Assumptions in derivation of gradually
varied flow governing equations
1. The slope of the channel bottom is small.
2. The channel is prismatic channel and there is
no lateral inflow or outflow from the
channel.
3. The pressure distribution is hydrostatic at all
channel sections.
4. The head losses in gradually varied flow may
be determined by using the equations for
head losses in uniform flows.
Gradually varied flow classification
A gradually varied flow profile is classified based on the
channel slope, and the magnitude of flow depth, y in
relation to y
n
and y
c
. The channel slope is classified
based on the relative magnitudes of the normal depth
y
n
and the critical depth y
c

Y
n
> Y
c
==> Mild slope (M)
y
n
< y
c
==> Steep slope (S)
y
n
= y
c
==> Critical slope (C)
S
o
= 0 ==> Horizontal slope (H)
S
o
< 0 ==> adverse slope (A)
Zones for classification of surface
profiles
Water surface profiles
Real life cases of water surface profiles
Real life cases of water surface profiles
Determining the shape of water
surface profile
S
f
> S
o
if y < y
n
and S
f
< S
o
if y > y
n
determines
sign of numerator and Fr determines the sign of
denominator
y->y
n
, Fr not equal to 1 then dy/dx -> 0 water
surface approaches normal depth asymptotically
y->y
c
, Fr->1 and S
f
!= S
o
then dy/dx -> infinity
water surface approaches y
c
vertically
y-> infinity, V->0, Fr and S
f
->0 then dy/dx -> S
o
for
very large values of y water surface tends to
horizontal
Determining the shapes of water
surface profiles
Gradually varied flow computation
GVF computations are required to determine
extent of flooding during floods and dam
construction
It is very important to maintain the minimum
water level in irrigation canals to supply water
to command area.
In addition, steady-state flow conditions are
needed to specify proper initial conditions for
the computation of unsteady flows
Gradually varied flow computation
Gradually varied flow Computation (RK
4th order method)
Introduction to Unsteady flows in
Pipelines
Important Definitions

Steady and Unsteady Flow
If the flow conditions, such as pressure, velocity at a point do not
change with time then the flow is said to be steady. If the flow
conditions change with time, the flow is termed unsteady

Transient State
The intermediate stage flow when the flow conditions are changed
from one steady state condition to another steady state is called
transient state flow

Uniform flow and Non uniform flow
If the velocity is constant wrt to distance at any given time, the flow
is called uniform flow, where as the velocity varies with distance,
the flow is called non-uniform.





Important Definitions
Steady Oscillatory or Periodic Flow
If the flow conditions are varying with time and if they repeat after
a fixed time interval, the flow is called periodic or steady oscillatory
flow. The time interval at which the conditions are repeating is
called period. if T is the period in seconds, then the frequency of
oscillations = 1/T cycles per second.
Column Separation
If the pressure in a closed conduit drops to the vapor pressure of a
liquid, then cavities are formed in the liquid and the liquid column
may separate.
Water hammer
Pressure fluctuations caused by a flow change. Nowadays hydraulic
transient is used more frequently.
Pressure surges
Transients involving slowly varying pressure oscillations are referred
as pressure surges

History of Water Hammer Theory
The study of fluid transients began with the investigation of the
propagation of sound waves in air, the propagation of waves in
shallow water and blood flow in arteries.
Joukowski (1897) conducted extensive experiments in Moscow on
pipes that were, respectively, (a) 7620 m long and 50 mm in
diameter, (b) 305 m long and 101 .5 mm in diameter, and (c) 305 m
long and 152.5 mm in diameter. Based on his experimental and
theoretical studies, he published a classic report on the basic theory
of water hammer.
He discussed the propagation of a pressure wave along the pipe and
the reflection of the pressure waves from the open end of a branch.
He found that the pressure rise was a maximum for closing times, Tc
2 L/a, in which L = length of the pipeline and a = wave speed.
Pressure change at valve due to
instantaneous change in velocity
velocity changes occurring at the downstream
end of a pipe and for the wave moving in the
upstream direction

if the velocity was changed at the upstream
end and the wave was moving in the
downstream direction


V
g
a
H A = A
V
g
a
H A = A
Wave velocity in rigid pipes
The velocity of water hammer waves in a
compressible fluid confined in a rigid pipe


The velocity of water hammer waves in a
compressible fluid confined in a elastic pipe

o
K
a

=
(

+
=

E
K
K
a
o
1
Compute pressure rise and wave
velocity
Compute the velocity of pressure waves in a 0.6
m diameter rigid pipe conveying water from a
reservoir to a valve. Determine the pressure rise
if a steady flow of 0.5 m
3
/s is instantaneously
stopped at the downstream end by closing the
valve. the density of the water = 998.2 kg/m
3
.
Bulk modulus of elasticity of the water, K = 2.2
GPa.
Surge effects
Positive surge effects

Pipe burst
Damaged pipe fixtures
Damage to pumps, foundations, pipe internals and valves

Negative surge effects

Buckling of plastic and thin walled steel pipes
Disintegration of the cement lining of pipes
Dirty water or air being drawn into pipelines through flanged or
socket connections.
Water column separation followed by high increases in pressure
when the separate liquid columns recombine
Photographs of burst of pipes due to
excessive transient pressures
Photographs of buckling of pipeline
due to negative pressures
Causes of transients in pipelines
1. Opening or closing of valves in a pipeline
2. Starting or stopping the pumps in a pumping
system
3. Starting-up a hydraulic turbine, accepting or
rejecting load
4. Pump trip as a result of switching off the
power supply or a power failure.
Wave propagation and reflections in a
pipe
Wave propagation and reflections in a
pipe
Pressure variation at valve (friction
losses are neglected)
Pressure variation at valve (friction
losses are considered)
1-D equations to analyze the P, V in
closed conduits
Distributed system modeling (t < 20L/a)
Continuity equation


Momentum equation
0
2
sin
1
= + +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
D
V fV
g
x
p
x
V
V
t
V
u

0
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
x
V
a
t
p

1-D equations to analyze the P, V in

closed conduits
Lumped system modeling (t > 20L/a)


}
+ =
+ + =
t
o
f o e v r
Vdt x x
H xS H H H
dt
dV
g
x
0
) (
Slow valve closure of a series piping
system (valve closure time = 6 sec)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

H
e
a
d

(
m
)

Time (s)
References
Chaudhry, M. H. (2008). Open channel flow,
2
nd
ed., Springer, New York
Chaudhry, M. H. (1987). Applied hydraulic
transients, 2nd Ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York.