Also includes variations along a long profile and Hjulstrm Curves

Paul Warburton. Head of Geography. Manchester High School for Girls.

This presentation should help teachers and students involved with AS and A2 Level Geography.
Important terms are highlighted, particularly the first time they are used. Students will need to be able to define these terms and use them in examination answers. Use the left and right arrow keys unless otherwise instructed.
Photocopiable/digital resources may only be copied by the purchasing institution on a single site and for their own use

ZigZag Education 2010

This is the wearing down of the landscape by a number of fluvial processes. These can lead to the development of erosion landforms. Click on each box below to find out more about each process.
ABRASION ATTRITION CORROSION HYDRAULIC ACTION 1
When you are ready to move on use the right arrow or click here.

This takes place in a number of different ways click on the bars below to find out more about each process.

BED or TRACTION LOAD SUSPENSION SALTATION

When you are ready to move on use the right arrow or click here.

There are two important concepts that relate to transportation in rivers two terms which you will need to learn. COMPETENCE This refers to the largest particle that can be carried in a river at a given velocity. CAPACITY This refers to the total amount of load that can be carried in a river at a given velocity.
When will capacity and competence be at their maximum?
We will finally look at Deposition next slide 3

Deposition is relatively straightforward. A river deposits material as the velocity or discharge slows. Material becomes too heavy to be carried and is dropped.

On this meander the water is flowing slower on the inside and deposits have accumulated.

In this estuary water is slowing as it meets the sea and there is plenty of visible deposition. An estuary is tidal so at low tide the banks of silt and sand are exposed. Here braiding has occurred. This is common towards the end of a river or where it flows across flatter land and slows. Deposition creates small islands called eyots. The course is split into many separate channels.

4 Source: US Geological Survey

Hopefully you will have realised by now that rivers carry out much of their work during bankfull conditions or when a river floods. Then discharge is high, the river is carrying a greater load and erosion can be carried out more effectively.

The rate of formation of erosional landforms increases under these conditions. Some depositional landforms like levees are formed when rivers flood. Some of the characteristics of a flood plain are again associated with flooding. Use your AS textbook to understand this more fully. 5

The Hjulstrm curves are based on laboratory experiments and they show the relationship between velocity and particle size and how they interact to affect erosion, transportation and deposition in a river. A number of basic ideas are easy to grasp.
Cms per second

As the river slows particles are more likely to be deposited.

As velocities increase particles start to be transported.

At higher velocities particles are carried at a velocity that enable them to erode. Very fine particles of clay and silt need higher velocities than might be expected to disturb these sizes as they are more cohesive (stick together). They are also so small that they need higher velocities to be effective in erosion.
The next slide will ask you some questions to see how well you have understood the graph

QUESTIONS Think about each question then press the right arrow key for the answer and again for the next question. 1. At what velocity would a 0.1mm sand particle start to carry out erosion? About 25cm/s 2.
Cms per second

At what velocity would a 0.01mm silt particle start to be transported?

About 0.1cm/s
3. Why do gravel particles need a higher velocity to carry out erosion than sand particles? Gravel particles are heavier than sand, more energy (velocity) is needed to lift and carry these particles so that they can carry out erosion.

4. Does the graph reflect competence or capacity? Competence because this is about the size of particle that can be carried at a given velocity, i.e. the relationship between the two. Capacity is the amount that can be carried at a given velocity this is not in the graph there is no measure here of quantity or volume of load.

We will finally see how these processes vary along the course of a river.

THE LONG PROFILE OF A RIVER (Cross profiles follow)

The long profile of a river is the course from the source to the mouth. In reality it is clearly not as smooth as shown here, but all rivers are wearing down the landscape and moving towards this theoretically smooth or graded profile. Each stage is marked by dominant processes and typical landforms these are outlined in a summary on the next slide. Of course the processes and even landforms can be found in different stages but are either at a different scale or are less common.

UPPER PROCESSES
Dominated by vertical erosion

MIDDLE PROCESSES
Lateral erosion becomes more significant Deposition on inside of bends LANDFORMS

LOWER PROCESSES
Deposition becomes dominant as river slows particularly near the mouth LANDFORMS Pronounced meanders Levees Braiding may occur where river slows and is carrying a high load Estuary at mouth Deltas

LANDFORMS

Irregular course small Valley sides more waterfalls and rapids gentle V shaped valleys as Rivers develop more river erodes vertically pronounced meanders Interlocking spurs Flood plain develops

The next slide takes you to the end

CHANNEL CROSS PROFILES

This refers to the cross sectional shape of a rivers channel. The cross sectional area is obtained by multiplying channel width by the average depth. UPPER STAGE In the upper stage, downstream from the source of a river, it tends to be relatively shallow and irregular. As this photo shows, the channel contains many boulders and pebbles it is a rough channel.
Click in this box for details of Mannings Roughness Coefficient

The channel roughness leads to friction and lower velocities. The discharge is low except in times of flood. Erosion is slow and is largely in a vertical direction. A V-shaped valley is slowly developing.

10

Width/depth ratio and hydraulic radius One way of describing channel cross section is to consider the width/depth ratio. This involves measuring the width of the channel and dividing this by the average depth. Some simple calculations will reveal that the ratio decreases as the channel becomes more efficient in its shape. A further way of measuring channel efficiency is to calculate the hydraulic radius. This involves dividing a channels cross sectional area (in m2) by the wetted perimeter (in m). The wetted perimeter (red line) is the length of the bed and banks in contact with water. The greater the hydraulic radius, the greater the efficiency of the channel and the less likely the river is to flood. The highest values occur when channels are deep, narrow, and semicircular in shape.

11

MIDDLE STAGE
With distance downstream the channel becomes deeper and the depth increases relative to the width. This is a more efficient channel as a smaller proportion of the water is near the bed and banks. So even though the gradient may be less, discharge and velocity increase as there is less friction to slow the water. You may also be able to see that the channel is less rough this also reduces friction and encourages a higher velocity and discharge.
Erosion is now greater in a lateral direction. A river will have a more meandering course and a flood plain will develop.

It is useful at this point to introduce two measures of channel efficiency.

12

LOWER STAGE
Towards the end of a river the channel is smooth and often deep relative to the width and continues to be efficient. Towards the sea though (or a lake) this can change. As a river slows and loses its energy, deposition becomes a more dominant process. The channel can become shallower and islands of deposits develop. If a river flows into the sea the mouth will be tidal and a wide estuary may develop. At low tide extensive mud and sand flats will be seen.
Suggest reasons why the discharge of a river would be higher in the lower stage.

This is the mouth of the river Mawddach near Barmouth in North Wales.

13

A SUMMARY OF CHANNEL PROPERTIES AT STAGES IN THE LONG PROFILE OF A RIVER

UPPER Irregular channel, rough many boulders, pebbles Shallow relative to width MIDDLE Smoother channel LOWER Smooth channel

Deeper relative to its width More efficient

Deep relative to width Efficient channel

although reduces towards mouth

Inefficient channel

High width/depth ratio Low hydraulic radius

Lower width/depth ratio Higher hydraulic radius

Low width/depth ratio Higher hydraulic radius

although lower towards mouth

14

The next slide takes you to the end of this presentation.

End the presentation

(move the cursor and click on the square symbol in the bottom left of the screen then End Show)

CORROSION
Gordale gorge in the Yorkshire Dales Where the water table reaches the surface streams can flow in limestone areas even though the rock is permeable.

Corrosion is most effective on rocks that contain carbonates such as limestone. Minerals in the rock are chemically broken down in water that is slightly acidic and carried away in solution.

The formula is CaCO3 +

Limestone

H2CO3
Acidic water

Ca(HCO3)2
Calcium hydrogen carbonate (soluble)

Click here to return to the menu

ATTRITION

This occurs when particles rub and grind against each other in moving water. Particles gradually become smoother, smaller and more rounded. What would most particles be like in the upper stage of a river?

Click here to return to the menu

HYDRAULIC ACTION

Turbulent water has a hammering and disturbing effect on the bed and banks. Air can be trapped, compressed and suddenly released this also helps to break up loosely consolidated material. NB the combination of hydraulic action and abrasion below a waterfall is called CAVITATION this leads to the development of a plunge pool.

Click here to return to the menu

ABRASION

The river cliff here has been created by a combination of hydraulic action and abrasion. Abrasion is the sandpaper/abrasive effect of material carried in the water rubbing against and impacting on the banks. Under what circumstances do you think this process would be most effective / at its maximum?

Click here to return to the menu

SALTATION

Saltation occurs where particles are too heavy to be carried in suspension (entrained) but are light enough to be lifted by the flowing water. Particles therefore bounce along the channel. Such particles disturb others when they fall to the bed and set off a general movement of material downstream. This process largely occurs with smaller particles. What would enable larger particles to be moved in this way?

Click here to return to the menu

SUSPENSION

Suspension occurs when particles are small enough to be lifted and entrained (held in) the moving water. Suspended material often gives a river a colouration usually brown but other colours depending on the colour of the sediment. The Yellow River in China (above) is stained here with loess (wind blown soil) carried in suspension.

Click here to return to the menu

BED or TRACTION LOAD This is material often rocks and boulders that is too large to be lifted from the bed. Instead it is rolled and dragged along by friction with, and by the force of, the moving water.
When or under what conditions would these larger boulders be moved?

Click here to return to the menu

MANNINGS ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT

Manning was an engineer who developed a formula for calculating channel roughness.

A(R x S ) Q= n
Where Q = discharge, A = cross sectional area, R = hydraulic radius, and S = slope. The formula gives a useful approximate value, the higher it is the rougher the bed and banks of the channel. Click here to return to the slide you left