AC Circuits

A quantity which is continually changing its sign from positive to negative and back again is called an alternating quantity, or more simply an AC quantity. Example of different AC waveforms are: Sine Wave Triangular Wave Square Wave
All these types of waveforms have a regular repeating nature and cause the quantity to drift backward and forward

A graph of the quantity to a base of time is called the waveform of the quantity
V V V

Time

Time

Time

Sinusoidal Waveforms: Consider v(t) = Vm Sin( t)

Vm T Vp-p= 2Vm Vm

T/2 -Vm

Time

Peak value: The highest value reached in a cycle, (denoted by upper case letter) Instantaneous value: The magnitude at any moment in time, (denoted by lower
case)

Cycle : One complete series of changes Period (T): Time to complete one cycle Frequency (f): Number of complete cycles per second, f = 1/T Hertz (Hz) Radian or Angular Frequency (): = 2 f Radians per second (Rads)

Phase Difference
A more general expression for sinusoidal waveform is: vA(t) = VmSin(t + ) Compare v(t) express with: vB(t) = VmSin(t) this vA(t) LEADS vB(t) by a phase angle of radians

Likewise if, vA(t) = VmSin(t - ) v(t) vA(t) LAGS vB(t) by a phase angle of radians t

Phasors
For simplicity, we can represent a cosine wave by a rotating vector called a PHASOR v(t)
Phasor fully described by amplitude and phase and frequency.

v(t)

Two cosine waves with different phase angle, but the SAME frequency, can be represented on the same phasor diagram by two phasors of different angles. v(t)

Phasors and Complex Numbers

A phasor is a complex number that carries the amplitude and phase information of a sinusoidal function. The powerful phasor concept is rooted in Eulers Indentity,

e j = Cos( ) + j Sin( )
Can see that: Cos( ) = Re ( e j ) Sin( ) = Im ( e j )
j

Thus, we can represent, a(t) = AmCos(t + ) = Re (Ame = Am = b + jc

)
Phasor Notation Complex number

In phasor notation the t is implicit and neglected in the shorthand notation. It is this feature that distinguishes a phasor from a complex number. Phasors are ROTATING complex numbers. A phasor is a special type of complex number; not all complex numbers are phasors

Graphical Representation A phasor diagram is a special type of Argand diagram (graphical representation of a complex number) Imag c Am

Real

The Two Types of phasor notation are related

b +jc = Am
b = Am Cos( ) c = Am Sin( )

Am = b 2 + c 2

c = tan b
-1

Purely Resistive Circuits i(t) v(t) R Where: v(t) = VmSin(t) Ohms Law: i(t) = v(t)/R i(t) = VmSin(t)/R

The instantaneous value of the current at time t is: i(t) = ImSin(t) where the peak current Im is given by, Im = Vm/R i(t) v(t)

In a purely resistive circuit the voltage and the current waveforms are completely in phase.

Power Waveforms and RMS Values

Instantaneous power in a purely resistive circuit: p(t) Pav t i(t) v(t) or, p(t) = PmSin2(t) where, Pm = I2m R = V2m / R p(t) = i2(t) R = I2m R Sin2(t)

Using the identity: 2Sin2(t) = 1 - Cos(2t) can show by integrating over one cycle that the average power is just: Pav = Pm/ 2 = I2mR / 2 Power Waveform is TWICE the frequency of the current waveform and is always positive. An alternating current dissipates power in a resistor irrespective of the current direction.

Root Mean Square Value (RMS) The RMS (Root Mean Square) value of a current has the same heating effect as a steady direct current (DC). For a sinusoidal AC waveform:
2 ImR Im Pav = = R 2 2 2 Im 2 Hence: R = I dc R 2 Therefore for the same heating effect: 2

For a DC circuit:
Im I dc = 2

Pav = I2dc R

Im 2 I m I dc 2 2
RMS value of a sinusoidal current :

Likewise it can be shown that,

Vm 2 Vm Vdc 2 2 Vm 0.707 Vm 2

I rms

Im 0.707 I m 2

likewise

Vrms

AC ammeters and voltmeters are calibrated for sine waves and indicate RMS values. RMS values are normally denoted by capital letters e.g. Pav = VI

Phasors
For simplicity, we can represent a sine wave by a rotating vector called a PHASOR v(t) v(t) Two cosine waves with different phase angle, but the SAME frequency, can be represented on the same phasor diagram by two phasors of different angles. v(t) t
Phasor fully described by amplitude and phase and frequency.