Chapter 3 - Diodes

Chapter 3 Diodes
Introduction

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Introduction

The ideal diode: (a) diode circuit symbol; (b) i-v characteristic; (c) equivalent circuit in the reverse direction; (d) equivalent circuit in
the forward direction.
The Ideal Diode
Rectifier circuit
Rectifier Circuit
Output waveform.
Input waveform.
Equivalent circuit when v
1
s 0
Equivalent circuit when v
1
> 0
Rectifier Circuit

Example 3.1
Rectifier Circuit

Example 3.2
Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes Forward Region

Example 3.3
Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes Reverse-Bias Region

Exercise 3.9
Rectifier Circuit

Exercises 3.4 and 3.5
The i-v characteristic of a silicon
junction diode.
Diode i-v Characteristic
The diode i-v relationship with some scales expanded and others compressed in order to reveal details.
i I
S
e
v
n V
T
1
|
\
|
|
|
.
V
T
k T
q
f or i>> Is
i I
S
e
v
n V
T
\
|
|
|
.
v n V
T
ln
i
I
S
|
\
|
|
.
e is the base for the natural log

Thermal Voltage

25mV at room temp.
ln = 2.3 log

Exercise 3.6

Consider a silicon diode with n=1.5. Find the change in voltage if current changes
from 0.1 mA to 10 mA.
i I
S
e
v
n V
T
n 1.5 := V
T
0.025 :=
I1 0.0001 := I2 0.01 :=
I1 I
S
e
v1
n V
T
I1
I2
e
v1 v2 ( )
n V
T
I2 I
S
e
v2
n V
T
v1_v2 n V
T
ln
I1
I2
|
\
|
|
.
:= v1_v2 0.173 = V

A diode for which the forward voltage drop is 0.7 V at 1 mA and for which n=1 is
operated at 0.5 V. What is the value of the current?
i I
S
e
v
n V
T
0.001 I
S
e
0.7
1 0.025
I I
S
e
0.5
1 0.025
I 0.001e
0.2
0.025
10
6
:=
I 0.335 = uA
Simplified physical structure of the junction diode.
(Actual geometries are given on Appendix A.)
Diode Simplified Physical Structure
Diode Semiconductor Physics
The semiconductor diode is what is called a pn junction and is shown in the figure on the right
Both the p and the n sections are part of the same crystal of silicon. At room temp., some
of the covalent bonds in silicon break and electrons are attracted to other atoms. These moving
electrons leave a hole behind that is filled by another electron, thus continuing the cycle. In
thermal equilibrium the concentration of holes (p) and the concentration of free electrons (n) are
equal to each other and to ni which is the number of holes or free electrons in silicon at a given
temp. Study of semiconductor physics yields the following equation for the free electrons.
In this eqaution, B is a material dependant parameter (5.4x10^31) for silicon, E
g

is a parameter known as the bandgap energy (1.12electron volts (eV) f or silicon),
and k is the Boltsmann's constant (8.62x10^-5 eV/K). Thus, at room temp
(300K), the number of holes or f ree electrons is 1.5x10^22.
The two methods by which holes and electrons move are called diffusionand drift. In diff usion, the f low
moves f rom areas of higher concentration of p or n to areas of lower concentration. This flow gives rise to
a flow of charge or dif fusion current. This is given by the f ollowing
J
p
q D
p
x
P
d
d
Here, Jp is the current density (in Amps/cm^2), q is the magnitude of electron

charge (1.6x10^-19C) and Dp is called the diff usivity of the holes. the diff erential
dP is the rate of change f or hole concentration.
J
n
q D
n
x
n
d
d
Here, Jn is also the current density. The only diff erence is the diff erential dn.
Here, it stands f or the rate of change of f ree electron concentration.
v
drift

p
E
The other method is called drift. Free holes and e- are moved by an electric field (E) and have a velocity
p is the mobility of holes and has the units of (cm^2)/V*s.
This method also gives rise to diff usion currents.
J
p_drift
q p
p
E J
n_drift
q n
n
E
The total drif t current is written as f ollows.
J
drift
q p
p
n
n
+
( )
E
A relationship, known as the Einstein relationship can be noted below.
D
n
n
D
p
p
V
T
The Vt term is what is called the thermal voltage. At room temperature, the
thermal voltage is approximately equal to 25mV
Silicon is of ten doped to give it better conductivity. Doping is the process by which impurity atoms are
added to the silicon to provide more holes (p-type) or more free electrons (n-type). One thing to note is
the way the various terms are def ined. For n-type silicon, the hole concentration is n
p
and the electron
concentration is n
n
. The concentration of donor (n-type) atoms or accpetor (p-type) atoms is denoted N
d

and N
A
respectively. Study of doped silicon revealed the f ollowing.
P
n
n
i
2
N
D
n
n
N
d
n
p
n
i
2
N
A
p
p
N
A
The pn junction under open-circuit conditions
When a diode (like the one shown above) is existing in a open circuit form two currents will naturally
occur.
Because the concentration of holes is high in the p-region and low in the n-region, holes will dif f use
f rom the p-region to the n-region. Likewise, f ree electrons will diff use f rom the n-region to the p-region.
These two components add together to f orm the dif f usion current I
d
whose direction is f rom the p-side
to the n-side. When the f ree electrons dif fuse to the p-side, many are paired up with holes very close
to the border of the two regions thus depleting the number of f ree electrons. This uncovers a positive
charge at the edge of the n-region. On the other side, due to the same (but exact opposite) situation, a
negative charge is uncovered at the boundary of the p-region. This results in what is called the
carrier-depletion region(shown in the f igure below) because the two extremes create a potential
dif f erence to result. This is in the f orm of a barrier that holes and electrons must cross in order to
create a current. Thus, it can be seen that the current I
D
depends on this barrier voltage (which is
denoted V
0
).
The voltage across this region can be found by the f ollowing equation:
In this equation, Na, Nd, and Vt are the same as they are previously
def ined above. In open circuit conditions, V0 is 0 because the voltages
existing at the metal contacts of the diode (in the diagram above)
counteract the voltage at the barrier. If this were not so, energy could be
drawn f rom the isolated diode which is clearly incorrect.
V
o
V
T
N
A
N
D
n
i
2
|
\
|
|
|
.
In addition to the dif f usion current, there is also a drif t current. When some of the thermally generated
holes (holes created by a temp. increase which releases some outer electrons from their bonds) reach
the edge of the depletion region, they are swept accross the area because of the electric f ield present
in that region. This also happens to the f ree electrons. The addition of these two currents is the drif t
current I
s
which flows in the opposite direction of I
D
. Under open circuit conditions, no external current
exists and the two currents are equal to each other. Under these conditions, if one current f or some
reason is not equal to the other, they will shift and change until the equilibrium is once again attained.
The carrier depletion region has a width and if the doping was equal f or both the n and p regions, the
depletion region would be symetrical. However, this is not the case so the widths will be dif f erent on
either side. Because the depletion region has a balanced amount of charge, it will have to extend
deeper into the lighter doped region so that the holes and electrons will all have a match. If the width in
the p side is denoted x
p
and the width in the n side is x
n
, the charge-eqaulity condition is this:
q x
p
A N
A
q x
n
A N
D
Here, A is the cross-sectional area of the junction.
This equation can be rewritten to yield the f ollowing, more clear
equality.
In actual practice, one side is usually more heavily doped than the
other causing the depletion region to exist almost entirely on one
side (the lightly doped side).
x
n
x
p
N
A
N
D
The width of the depletion region can be given (based on the above assumption that it exists
mainly on one side) by the f ollowing equation.
W
depletion_region
x
n
x
p
+
2c
s
q
1
N
A
1
N
D
+
|
\
|
|
.
V
o
In this equation, c
s
is the electrical permittivity of silicon (1.04x10^-12 Farrads/cm). The width of
the region is usually 0.1 to 1 m.
The pn Junction under reverse-bias conditions
To best describe the pn junction diode under reverse bias conditions, the diode is modelled to
have a current source exciting it. This current is kept lower than I
s
to keep the diode f rom
experiencing breakdown. The current (I) will be carried by electrons that move (in the opposite
direction of I) f rom the n-region to the p-region. This process creates a voltage (denoted V
r
) f or
which the voltage tries to flow into the n-region of the diode. This voltage is, like the current,
less than the breakdown voltage (the voltage at which current will f low in the negative direction).
Because the positive end of the voltage is trying to enter the diode through the positive wall of
the barrier, the voltage actually increases the barrier's size. No current, theref ore, is allowed to
pass through the diode. From this reasoning, it is relatively easy to see that as the current (and
thus Vr) changes, the charge in the depletion region is going to change. In this way, the diode
has some capacitance. The charge in the depletion region q
j
can be f ound by f inding the charge
in either of the two regions (because the charge is equal in both). Using the n-side, the f ollowing
equation is derived.
For this equation, A is the cross-sectional area of the junction.
Using the above eq. f or the width of the depletion region, the
f ollowing can be written
q
j
q
n
q N
D
x
n
A
q
j
q
N
A
N
D
N
A
N
D
+
A W
depletion_region
Here, Wdep is slightly dif ferent f rom the above
equation and can be written as f ollows.
Diode Physical Structure
This adjustment is made because
it is no longer an open circuit.
W
depletion_region
x
n
x
p
+
2c
s
q
1
N
A
1
N
D
+
|
\
|
|
.
V
o
V
R
+
( )
There is now an external voltage source acting on the diode so the voltage is the addition of the
open circuit voltage and the reverse voltage. The capacitance can then be written as the
derivative of the charge in the depletion region. WIth a little bit of algebra and the combining of
previous equations, the value f or the capacitance (C
j
) can be f ound to be as f ollows:
Here, Cjo is the value of the capacitance of the open circuit diode
and is def ined below. m is a value that depends on the manner in
which the concentration changes f rom the p to the n side of the
juncion. It is called the grading coeff icient (f or the case of the
diode we are using, it is .5 but it ranges f rom .5 to about .333)
C
j
C
j0
1
V
R
V
o
+
|
\
|
|
.
m
This is the value of the open circuit capacitance. This is
readily made apparant by the f act that it does not depend
on Vr.
C
j0
A
q c
s
2
N
A
N
D
N
A
N
D
+
|
\
|
|
.
1
V
o
|
\
|
|
.
The pn Junction in the Breakdown Region
As was explained earlier, the voltage f or reverse bias conditions cannot exceed the breakdown voltage.
If it does, the barrier will no longer hinder the flow of current. As the voltage, in reverse, accross the
diode increases, the voltage across the depletion layer also increases. When this voltage is suf f iciently
high enough, one of two mechanisms comes into play that allows current to f low through the diode.
The f irst of these mechanisms is called the zener effect. If the breakdown voltage of the diode is less
than 5V, the zener ef fect is usually what happens. Zener breakdown occurs when the electric field in
the depletion layer increases to the point where it can break covalent bonds and generate electron-hole
pairs. These holes and pairs are then swept to their respective sides causing a reverse current to f orm
which supports the outside current source. While this happens, the voltage across the diode will
remain relatively close to the breakdown voltage while the current will be largely determined by the
outside source.
The other mechanism is called the avalanche effect. This usually happens when the breakdown
voltage is greater than 7V. In this ef f ect, the voltage or current basically f orces its way through the
barrier. The covalent bonds are broken by the incoming voltage/current and as the f irst f ew bonds
break, more carriers are f reed up to break more bonds causing an avalanche of current to flow. This
causes large current changes f or small voltage changes.
A couple of things to note:
1. In the 5V to 7V range, the breakdown could be either zener or avalanche or a combination f o the
two.
2. pn junction breakdown is not a destructive process. It only causes problems when the maximum
dissapated power is exceeded. This max. value, in turn, implies a max. value f or the reverse current.
The pn Junction Under Forward-Bias Conditions
When a diode is under f orward bias condtions, an external voltage or current source is applied with the
positive side of the voltage entering the p-side of the diode. When this happens, the electrons f rom the
incoming current (which enter at the n-side) and the holes f rom the positive voltage (entering from the
p-side) will nuetralize and diminish the depletion region barrier. A result of this is that the concentration
of minority carriers at the edge of the depletion region (denoted pn(xn) is related to the f orward voltage
V by the f ollowing equation.
In this equation, pn0 is the concentration of minority carriers when no external
source is added. VT is the thermal voltage (ususlly 25mV). This is known as
the law of the junction. p
n
x
n
( ) p
n0
e
V
V
T
The concentration of excess holes in the n-region can be expressed as the following.
Here, Lp is a canstant that determines the steepness of
the exponential decay of excess holes. It is called the
dif f usion length of holes in the n-type silicon. The smaller
the value of Lp, the f aster the injected holes will
recombined with the majority electrons.
p
n
x ( ) p
n0
p
n
x
n
( ) p
n0
+ ( ) e
x x
n
( )
L
p
+
The constant Lp is also related to another parameter called the excess-minority-carrier lifetimetp.
This is the average time it takes f or an injected hole to recombine. Lp is also related to the dif f usion
constant Dp.
L
p
D
p
t
p
Typical values f or Lp range from 1 to 100um and tp usually ranges f rom 1 to
10,000ns.
The holes dif f using in the n-region will give rise to a holes current. The density (which is greatest at the
edge of the depletion region - x = xn) is given by the following.
J
p
q
D
p
L
p
p
n0
e
V
V
T
1
|
\
|
|
.
(
(
In a similar manner, the analysis can extendd to the electrons injected into the p-region
Ln is the dif f usion length of the electrons in the p-region.
J
n
q
D
n
L
n
n
p0
e
V
V
T
1
|
\
|
|
.
(
(
Because both of the densities are in the same direction, the total current (I) can be f ound. Substituting
f or pn0 = ni^2/ND and similarly for np0, the current can be expressed as f ollows.
I A q n
i
2
D
p
L
p
N
D
D
n
L
n
N
A
+
|
\
|
|
.
e
V
V
T
1
|
\
|
|
.
Minority-carrier distribution in a forward-biased pn junction. It
is assumed that the p region is more heavily doped than the n
region; N
A
>> N
D
.
Thus, the diode saturation current is def ined to be
I
S
A q n
i
2
D
p
L
p
N
D
D
n
L
n
N
A
+
|
\
|
|
.
Because of the excess carriers in forward bias, when the voltage is changed, the charge of the diode
will have to change to achieve steady state. This causes a f orm of charge storing in the depletion
region. This charge can be calculated by adding up the charge in the p and n regions. This charge
turns out to be as f ollows.
Q t
p
I
p
t
n
I
n
+
Q t
T
I
Because it was earlier defined that Ip + In is equal to I, the equation can be rewritten as
where tT is related to tn and tp and is called the mean tranit time. With this, it can be shown that
the capacitance is defined as f ollows.
C
d
t
T
V
T
|
\
|
|
.
I As can be seen, the dif fusion capacitance is directly proportional to the current.
This means that the capacitance f or reverse bias is almost negligably small.
The capacitance over the depletion layer under f orward bias is written as C
j
2 C
j0
This eqation is actually a f airly poor model so it is used as a rule of thumb rather than a solid f act.
Lessons In Electric Circuits copyright (C) 2000-2002 Tony R. Kuphaldt

Diode Characteristic




Diode Applications

Diode Applications
Diode Applications
Diode Applications
Diode Applications
Diode Applications
A simple diode circuit.
Analysis of Diode Circuits
Graphical analysis of the circuit above
Graphical Analysis
ID I
S
e
v1
n V
T
ID
VDD VD
R
Iterative Analysis

Example 3.4
V2 0.762 = V2 0.763 0.1log
ID2
ID
|
\
|
|
.
+ :=
ID2 4.237 10
3
= ID2
5 0.763
1000
:=
V2 0.763 = V2 V1 0.1log
I2
I1
|
\
|
|
.
+ :=
For our case 2.3.n.VT = 0.1 V (This results f rom the condition of 0.1 V change f or every
decade change in current
mA I1 1 := mA I2 4.3 := V V1 0.7 := V2 V1 2.3n V
T
log
I2
I1
|
\
|
|
.
We then use the diode equation to obtain a better estimate f or VD

ID 4.3 10
3
= ID
VDD VD
1000
:=
VD 0.7 := R1 1000 := VDD 5 :=
Determine ID and VD f or this circuit with VDD = 5 V and R1 = 1 K ohm.
Assume diode current 1 mA at voltage 0.7 V, and that its voltage drop changes by 0.1 V f or
every decade change in current.
Approximating the diode forward characteristic with two straight lines.
Simplified Diode Models
Piecewise-linear model of the diode forward characteristic and its equivalent circuit representation.
Simplified Diode Models

Example 3.5
Development of the constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward characteristics. A vertical straight line (b) is used to approximate
the fast-rising exponential.
The Constant-Voltage Drop Model
The constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward characteristic and its equivalent circuit representation.
The Constant-Voltage Drop Model
Development of the diode small-signal model. Note that the numerical values shown are for a diode with n = 2.
The Small-Signal Model
Equivalent circuit model for the diode for small changes around bias point Q. The incremental resistance r
d
is the inverse of the slope
of the tangent at Q, and V
D0
is the intercept of the tangent on the v
D
axis.

Example 3.6
The analysis of the circuit in (a), which contains both dc and signal quantities, can be performed by replacing the diode with the model
of previous figure, as shown in (b). This allows separating the dc analysis [the circuit in (c)] from the signal analysis [the circuit in
(d)].
Circuit symbol for a zener diode.
Zener Diode - Characteristics
The diode i-v characteristic with the breakdown region shown in some detail.
Model for the zener diode.
6.8 V, 10mA

0.5W, 6.8-V, 70mA
Vz = Vzo + r2Iz

Vz > Vzo
Block diagram of a dc power supply.
Rectifier Circuits
(a) Half-wave rectifier. (b) Equivalent
circuit of the half-wave rectifier with the
diode replaced with its battery-plus-
resistance model. (c) transfer
characteristic of the rectifier circuit. (d)
Input and output waveforms, assuming
that r
D
<< R.
Rectifier Circuits
v
o
0 v
s
V
DO
<
v
o
R
R r
D
+
v
s
V
DO
R
R r
D
+
v
s
V
DO
>
r
D
R < v
o
v
s
V
DO
PIV V
s
Full-wave rectifier utilizing a transformer with a center-tapped
secondary winding. (a) Circuit. (b) Transfer characteristic
assuming a constant-voltage-drop model for the diodes. (c) Input
and output waveforms.
Rectifier Circuits
PIV 2 V
s
V
DO
The bridge rectifier: (a) circuit and (b) input and output
waveforms.
Rectifier Circuits
PIV V
s
V
DO

Voltage and current waveforms in the peak rectifier circuit with CR >> T. The diode is assumed ideal.
Rectifier Circuits
With A Filter Capacitor
Rectifier Circuits
i
L
v
o
R
i
D
i
C
I
L
+ C
t
v
I
d
d
i
L
+ I
L
V
p
R
CR >> T
v
o
V
p
e
t
C R
at the end of the discharge intervall

V
p
V
r
V
p
e
T
C R
SInce CR >> T and

e
T
CR
1
T
CR
V
r
V
p
T
CR
V
r
V
p
f C R
Vr << Vp
Rectifier Circuits
V
p
cos eAt
( )
V
p
V
r
f or small angles ( eAt)

cos eAt
( )
1
1
2
eAt
( )
2

Vp 1
1
2
eAt
( )
2

(
(
V
p
V
r
V
p
1
2
eAt
( )
2
V
r
eAt 2
Vr
V
p
to determine the average diode current during

conduction we equate the charge that the diode
supplies the capacitor
Q
supplied
i
Cav
At
to the charge the capacitor losses during the discharge
Q
lost
C V
r
i
Dav
I
L
1 t 2
V
p
V
r
+
|
\
|
|
.
i
Dmax
I
L
1 2 t 2
V
p
V
r
+
|
\
|
|
.
Rectifier Circuits
If Vp = 100 V
R = 10 K

Calculate the value of the
capacitance C that will result
in a peak-to-peak ripple
Vr of 5 V, the conduction
angle and the average and
peak values of the diode
current.
V
p
100 := R 10000 := f 60 :=
V
r
5 := I
L
V
p
R
:= I
L
0.01 = mA
C
V
p
V
r
f R
:= C 3.333 10
5
=
eAt 2
V
r
V
p
:= eAt 0.316 = rad
i
Dav
I
L
1 t 2
V
p
V
r
+
|
\
|
|
.
:= i
Dav
0.209 =
i
Dmax
I
L
1 2 t 2
V
p
V
r
+
|
\
|
|
.
:= i
Dmax
0.407 =
The Spice Diode Model and Simulation Examples
The dc characteristics of the diode are determined by the parameters IS and N. An ohmic resistance, RS, is included.
Charge storage effects are modeled by a transit time, TT, and a nonlinear depletion layer capacitance which is
determined by the parameters CJO, VJ, and M. The temperature dependence of the saturation current is defined by the
parameters EG, the energy and XTI, the saturation current temperature exponent. Reverse breakdown is modeled by an
exponential increase in the reverse diode current and is determined by the parameters BV and IBV (both of which are
positive numbers).
name parameter units default example
---- --------- ----- -------
1 IS saturation current A 1.0E-14 1.0E-14 *
2 RS ohmic resistance Ohm 0 10
*
3 N emission coefficient - 1 1.0
4 TT transit-time sec 0 0.1Ns
5 CJO zero-bias junction capacitance F 0 2PF *
6 VJ junction potential V 1 0.6
7 M grading coefficient - 0.5 0.5
8 EG activation energy eV 1.11 1.11 Si
0.69 Sbd
0.67 Ge
The dc characteristics of the diode are determined by the parameters IS and N. An ohmic resistance, RS, is included.
Charge storage effects are modeled by a transit time, TT, and a nonlinear depletion layer capacitance which is
determined by the parameters CJO, VJ, and M. The temperature dependence of the saturation current is defined by the
parameters EG, the energy and XTI, the saturation current temperature exponent. Reverse breakdown is modeled by an
exponential increase in the reverse diode current and is determined by the parameters BV and IBV (both of which are
positive numbers).
name parameter units default example a
---- --------- ----- ------- --
-----
9 XTI saturation-current temp. exp - 3.0 3.0 jn
2.0 Sbd
10 KF flicker noise coefficient - 0
11 AF flicker noise exponent - 1
12 FC coefficient for forward-bias - 0.5
depletion capacitance formula
13 BV reverse breakdown voltage V infinite 40.0
14 IBV current at breakdown voltage A 1.0E-3
PN Junction Diodes

Name Parameter Units Default
IS saturation current A 1.0E-14
N emission coefficient - 1
BV reverse breakdown voltage V infinite
RS diode series resistance O 0
CJO zero-bias junction capacitance F 0
VJ junction potential V 1
M grading coefficient - 0.5

A variety of basic limiting circuits.
Limiting and Clamping Circuits

Chapter 3 - Diodes

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Chapter 3 - Diodes

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Chapter 3 Diodes

e is the base for the natural log

Here, Jp is the current density (in Amps/cm^2), q is the magnitude of electron

We then use the diode equation to obtain a better estimate f or VD

at the end of the discharge intervall

SInce CR >> T and

f or small angles ( eAt)

to determine the average diode current during

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