Chapter 3 Diodes

Physical Operation of Diodes

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Content
Part 1. Physical operation of diodes Part 2. Analysis of diode circuits and applications of diodes

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Part 1. Physical operation of diodes

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Linear and Nonlinear Devices

So

far, almost all the devices we have learnt are linear signal-processing functions, however, are implemented by nonlinear devices

Many

Linear amplifier
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Nonlinear amplifier

Diode and its physical structure

The The

diode is the simplest and most fundamental nonlinear circuit element most important region is the boundary between n-type and p-type semiconductor, which is called pn junction
pn junction

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Symbol and characteristic for the ideal diode

i
Anode

i + v

Cathode

---Reverse bias--- ---Forward bias--0

(b) iv characteristic i

(a) diode circuit symbol

i + v v < 0 i=0

v i > 0 v =0

(c) equivalent circuit

(d) equivalent circuit

in the reverse direction

in the forward direction

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How does it happen?

To

answer the question, we need to know:

Material, structure and the related features (crystal and semiconductor in particular) New particles to carry charge in addition to electrons New mechanism(s) of conduction in addition to what we have known Techniques to manufacture the devices (not included in this course)

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Basic semiconductor concepts

Semiconductor ( ) Doped Semiconductor ( ) Carriers ( ) Diffusion ( ), Drift ( )
Intrinsic

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Elements and material

Periodic

table

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Elements and material (in Chinese)

10

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Material and structure

Structure

11

is another important factor to determine the physical and chemical characteristics of the material
allotrope( ), e.g.
graphite diamond

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Different features and different applications

12

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Material structure: crystal and noncrystal

Crystal

13

Regular shape, fixed freezing temperature, fixed boiling point, etc.

Why?

Regular lattice structure

Atoms can not tell from each other: they behave uniquely In noncrystal, however, the atoms of the same element usually play different roles, e.g. Polymer

aromatic hydrogen bonds ( )

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Energy band
Energy

14

band also reflects the material property

2p 2s

} n=1

2p 2s

Energy level

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Energy level

1s n = 1

1s
distance

(a) Singular atom

(b) Splitting of energy levels for 8 atoms

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Bandgap

15

Energy bands resulted in from energy level splitting

In

addition to the conduction band and the valence band, there is an area called Bandgap No electron can stay at the bandgap!
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Transition
The

16

movement of electrons between the energy bands is call transition. Transition is always accompanied with energy change (absorption or emission of photons and/or phonons, temperature change, etc.)

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e.g. Absorption of a photon

Ec( ) E g = Ec - Ev Ev( )
Photon energy h = Eg
(h: Planck const. : Freq.)

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e.g. Spontaneous emission

Ec( ) E g = Ec - Ev Ev( )
Photon energy h = Eg

18

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Silicon and Germanium

19

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Silicon /

20

IV element Each atom is bound with four neighbors via Covalent Bond Its atomic structure is tetrahedron( )
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Monocrystalline silicon

polycrystalline silicon

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Atomic structure of silicon

21

Tetrahedron( )

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2-D representation of the silicon crystal

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+4

+4

+4

+4

+4

+4

+4

+4

Silicon atoms
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Valence electrons
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Covalent bond
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Energy band structure of Si

Electron energy

23

Conduction band

Bandgap Valence band

5.43A

Lattice pitch

Forming of the energy band when silicon atoms approach to each other so as to compose crystalline silicon
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Intrinsic semiconductor
Pure

24

semiconductor At 0 K, all bonds are intact and no free electrons are available for current conduction Ec( ) Eg = Ec - Ev Ev( )
The energy bands and the states of electrons in Si/Ge at T= 0 K
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@T

= 0 ( K)

Thermal ionization
At

25

room temperature, some of the covalent bonds are broken by thermal ionization

Each

broken bond gives rise to a free electron and a hole, both of which become available for current conduction ionization

Thermal

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Carriers
Free

26

electron ---produced by thermal ionization. It can move freely in the lattice structure so as to form current Hole---empty position in broken covalent bond. It can also move freely to form current

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Carriers
The

27

free electron is a negative charge and the hole is a positive charge Both of them can move in the crystal structure, so as to form electric current.

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Recombination & thermal equilibrium

Recombination

28

A free electron may fill into a hole, resulting in the disappearance of a pair of carriers ( a free electron and a hole).

Thermal

equilibrium

At a steady temperature, the recombination rate is equal to the ionization rate thermal equilibrium The concentration of the carriers at thermal equilibrium does not change and can be calculated.

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Carrier concentration
Carrier

29

concentration in thermal equilibrium

n = p = ni
2

where

ni = BT e
At

3 EG kT

(k: Boltzmann constant)

room temperature (T=300K) for Si,

ni 1.5 10
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Important notes
ni strongly

30

depends on temperature. The high the temperature is, the dramatically great the carrier concentration is At room temperature only one of every billion atoms is ionized Silicons conductivity is between that of conductors and insulators. Actually the characteristic of intrinsic silicon approaches to insulators
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Doped semiconductor
Conductivity

31

of the semiconductor can be significantly changed by doping. There are two types of doped semiconductors: n type and p type. They are used to form pn junction.

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Doped semiconductorn type

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

32

Free E
Si P Si Si Si Si + Si Si Si Si Si Si

Donor
Si Si Si

bound charge
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si
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Si

Si
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Si
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Si

Si

Si

n type semiconductor
Donor---

33

pentavalent impurity provides free electrons (usually entirely ionized at room temperature) bound charge---impurity atom donating electron gives rise to positive bound charge carriers---free electrons (mostly generated by ionized donor and a very tiny portion by thermal ionization) . carriers---holes (only generated by thermal ionization) .
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Positive

Majority

Minority

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Carrier concentration for n type

Thermal

34

equilibrium equation

nn 0 pn 0 = ni
Electric

neutral equation

nn 0 = pn 0 + N D
where ND is the donor concentration

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Carrier concentration for n type

In

35

a n type Si, the following relationships hold (at room temperature):

nn 0 > ni > pn 0 > > nn 0 + n 0> ni p >

and

nn 0 N D 2 pn 0 ni / N D
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Doped semiconductorp type

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

36

Si Al Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Hole
Si Si Si

Acceptor

Si

Si

Si

bound charge
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

Si
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Si

Si
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Si

Si

Si

p type semiconductor

37

Acceptor--- trivalent impurity provides holes (usually entirely ionized) Negative bound charge --- impurity atom accepting hole give rise to negative bound charge Majority carriers---holes (mostly generated by ionized acceptor and a tiny small portion by thermal ionization) Minority carriers--- free electrons (only generated by thermal ionization.)

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Carrier concentration for p type

Thermal

38

equilibrium equation

p p 0 n p 0=ni
Electric

neutral equation

p p0 = np0 + N A
where NA is the acceptor concentration

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Carrier concentration for p type

In

39

a p type Si, the following relationships hold (at room temperature):

p p 0 >> ni >> n p 0 p p 0 + n p 0 >> ni

and

pp0 N A 2 n p 0 ni / N A
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Conclusion on the doped semiconductor

Majority

40

carrier is only determined by the impurity. It is independent of temperature. Minority carrier is strongly affected by temperature. If the temperature is high enough, the characteristic of doped semiconductor will decline to that of intrinsic semiconductor

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Doping compensation
On p type semiconductor (substrate), n type semiconductor can be formed by injecting donors with N D >> N A into the specific area. or reversely.
N+ D NA N+ A ND

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Doping compensation
The boundary between n and p type semiconductor is the pn junction. This is the basic step for VLSI fabrication technology.

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The impurities
Doping

43

should not change the lattice structure! Hence neighbor elements are usually used as dopants.

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Semiconductor materials

44

IV: Silicon---todays IC technology is based entirely on silicon Germanium---early used III-V: Gallium arsenide (GaAs)---used for microwave circuits InP---used for optoelectronics II-VI: used for luminescence, IF, etc.

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Carriers movement
There

45

are two mechanisms for holes and free electrons to move in the silicon crystal. Drift

The carrier motion is generated by the electrical field across a piece of silicon. This motion will produce drift current. The carrier motion is generated by the different concentration of carrier in a piece of silicon. The diffused motion of carriers from higher concentration to lower one will give rise to diffusion current

Diffusion

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Drift and drift current

Drift

46

Drift velocities

vdrift = p E vdrift = n E

n where p , are the constants called mobility of holes and electrons, respectively

Drift current densities

J n drift = ( qn ) (n E ) = qn n E J p drift = qp p E

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Drift and drift current

Total

47

drift current density

J drift = qn np p ) E
Resistivity

= 1 q (n p ) n p

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Resistivity for intrinsic semiconductor

Resistivity

48

for intrinsic semiconductor

= 1 q (n + p ) = 1 qn ( + ) n p i n p
* Resistivity is inversely proportional to the carrier concentration of intrinsic semiconductor
Temperature

coefficient (TC) for resistivity of intrinsic semiconductor is negative due to positive TC of ni

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Resistivities for doped semiconductor

Resistivities

49

for doped semiconductor

1 For n type qN D n = 1 q (n n + p p ) 1 qN For p type A p * Resistivities are inversely proportional to the concentration of doped impurities.
Temperature

coefficient for resistivity of doped semiconductor is positive due to negative TC of mobility

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Diffusion and diffusion current

diffusion

50

A bar of intrinsic silicon (a) in which the hole concentration profile shown in (b) has been created along the x-axis by some unspecified mechanism.

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Diffusion and diffusion current

dp ( x ) J p = qD p dx dn ( x ) J n = qD n dx

51

where D p , Dn are the diffusion constants or diffusivities for hole and electron, respectively The diffusion current density is proportional to the slope of the the concentration curve, or the concentration gradient.

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Einstein relationship
Einstein

52

relationship exists between the carrier diffusivity and mobility:

Dn D p kT = = VT = n p q

where VT is thermal voltage( ), At room temperature

VT ; 25 mv

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pn Junction
The

53

pn junction under open-circuit condition I-V characteristic of pn junction

Terminal characteristic of junction diode. Physical operation of diode.

Junction

capacitance

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pn Junction
Usually

54

the pn junction is asymmetric, p+n or

pn+
The

superscript + denotes the region of more heavily doped in comparison with the other region

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The carriers movement in a pn junction

Recall

55

of semiconductor characteristics:

p-type: majority carriers (holes)+ very few amount of minority carriers (free electrons) + negative bound charges n-type: majority carriers (free electrons)+ very few amount of minority carriers (holes) + positive bound charges

Carriee movement in pn junction

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pn Junction under open-circuit condition

56

(a) the pn junction without applied voltage (opencircuited terminals)

(b) the potential distribution along an axis perpendicular to the junction.

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Procedure of forming pn junction

The

57

procedure of forming pn: the dynamic equilibrium of drift and diffusion movements for carriers in the silicon: Diffusion Space charge Drift Equilibrium

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Procedure of forming pn junction

diffusion

58

Both the majority carriers diffuse across the boundary between p-type and n-type semiconductor. The direction of diffusion current is from p side to n side.

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Procedure of forming pn junction

Space

59

charge region

Recombining of electrons and holes results in the disappearance of carriers (depletion) Bound charges are no longer neutralized by majority carriers and are then uncovered. There is a region close to the junction where majority carriers on both side are depleted and there are uncovered bound charges of different polarity This region is called carrier-depletion region( ) or space charge region( ). It acts as a barrier( ) preventing the majority carriers from further diffusion
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Procedure of forming pn junction

Drift

60

Electric field is established across the space charge region. Direction of electronic field is from n side to p side. It helps minority carriers drift through the junction. The direction of drift current is from n side to p side.

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Procedure of forming pn junction

Equilibrium

61

Two opposite currents across the junction is equal in magnitude. No net current flows across the pn junction. Equilibrium condition is maintained by the barrier voltage.

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Junction built-in voltage

The

62

junction built-in voltage( )

N AND Vo = VT ln 2 ni

It depends on doping concentration and temperature Its TC is negative.

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Width of the depletion region

Width

63

of the Depletion Region:

Wdepo = Wdep = 2 1 1 ( + )Vo q N A ND 2 1 1 ( + VoV ) ) q N A ND

Depletion region exists almost entirely on the slightly doped side. Width depends on the voltage across the junction.

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I-V Characteristics

64

The diode iv relationship with some scales expanded and others compressed in order to reveal details
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Terminal characteristic of junction diodes

65

The Forward-Bias Region, determined by The Reverse-Bias Region, determined by The Breakdown Region, determined by

v>o

VZK < v < 0 v < VZK

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The pn junction under forward-bias

The pn junction excited by a constantcurrent source supplying a current I in the forward direction. The depletion layer narrows and the barrier voltage decreases by V volts, which appears as an external voltage in the forward direction.

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Carrier distribution under forward-bias

67

Minority-carrier distribution in a forwardbiased pn junction. It is assumed that the p region is more heavily doped than the n region; NA >>ND.
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Excess minority carrier concentration

pn ( x ) = pno + [ pn ( xn ) pn 0 e ]
( xxn ) Lp

n p ( x) = n p 0+ [ n p ( x p ) n p 0 e ]
where L p = Dp
p

( xx p )

Ln

Ln ,=
v

D n n

diffusion length
v

n , p excess-minority-carrier lifetime
pn ( xn ) = pn0e

VT

, np ( xp ) =np0 e VT

law of the junction

Exponential relationship Small voltage incremental gives rise to great incremental of excess minority carrier concentration
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Total current under forward-bias

I = I pD+ I nD= A J pD J nD ) A (q ( + = dp (x ) + dx q
x =x n

69

dn (x ) dx x = x p LnnA Dn )( e
V VT

V D p pn 0 Dnn p 0 D VT 2 p = qA( + )(e = qAn ( i + 1) Lp Ln LpnD

1)

= I s (e VT 1)

where Is---saturation current A---junction cross-sectional area

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I-V characteristic equation

i =I s e
Nonlinear
v nVT

70

1)

(exponential relationship) Is (saturation current) strongly depends on temperature n=1 or 2, in general n=1 e.g. assuming V1 at I1 and V2 at I2, then:

V2 V1 = nVT ln

I2

= 2.3nVT lg I1

I2

I1

For a decade changes in current, the diode voltage drop changes by 60mv (for n=1) or 120mv (for n=2)

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Turn-on voltage

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A conduction diode has approximately a constant voltage drop across it. Its called turn-on voltage.

VD ( on ) = 0.7V VD ( on ) = 0.25V

For silicon For germanium

Diodes with different current rating will exhibit the turn-on voltage at different currents. Negative TC, TC = 2mv / C

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The pn junction under reverse-bias

The pn junction excited by a constant-current source I in the reverse direction. To avoid breakdown, I is kept smaller than IS. Note that the depletion layer widens and the barrier voltage increases by VR volts, which appears between the terminals as a reverse voltage.

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Carrier distribution under reverse-bias

UR

73

p-type area

n-type area

pp0

nn0

np0
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pn0

I-V characteristic equation

i = s I
Independent of voltage

74

where Is is the saturation current. It is proportional to ni2, which is a strong function of temperature.
I s = qA ( D p pn 0 Lp
2

Dn n p 0 Ln

Dn = qAn i ( + ) L p nD Ln n A

Dp

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The pn junction in the breakdown region

75

The pn junction excited by a reverse-current source I, where I > IS

The junction breaks down, and a voltage VZ , with the polarity indicated, develops across the junction.

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Breakdown mechanisms
Zener

76

effect

Occurs in heavily doping semiconductor Breakdown voltage is less than 5v. Carriers generated by electric field---field ionization. TC is negative.

Avalanche

effect

Occurs in slightly doping semiconductor Breakdown voltage is more than 7v. Carriers generated by collision. TC is positive.

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Breakdown mechanisms
Remember: pn junction breakdown is not a destructive process, provided that the maximum specified power dissipation is not exceeded.

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Zener Diode

78

Circuit symbol

The diode iv characteristic with the breakdown region shown in some detail.

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Junction Capacitance
Diffusion

79

Capacitance

Charge stored in bulk region changes with the change of voltage across pn junction gives rise to capacitive effect Small-signal diffusion capacitance

Cd,

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Junction Capacitance
Depletion

80

capacitance

UR

Charge stored in depletion layer changes with the change of voltage across pn junction, which gives rise to capacitive effect. Small-signal depletion capacitance

UR+U

Cb PN

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Diffusion Capacitance
According to the definition:

81

Cd = dQ

dV

The charge stored in bulk region is obtained from the following equations:

Q p = Aq [ pn ( x ) pno ]dx
xn

= Aq [ pn ( xn ) pno ] L p = p I p

Qn = n I n
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Diffusion Capacitance
The expression for diffusion capacitance:
V d Cd = [T I s e VT ] dV

82

=(

VT

)IQ
Forward-bias, linear relationship Reverse-bias, almost inexistence

T ( )IQ VT 0

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Depletion Capacitance
According to the definition: C j = dQ

83

dVR V

R =VQ

Actually this capacitance is similar to parallel plate capacitance. A A Cj = Wdep 2 1 1 [ ( + )(V0 + vR ) q N A NB

= C j0 (1 +VR Vo )

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Depletion Capacitance
A more general formula for depletion capacitance is : C j0
Cj = (1 + VR V0 )m

84

where m is called grading coefficient. If the concentration changes sharply,

1 1 m= ~ 3 2
1 m = 2

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Junction Capacitance
Remember: a) Diffusion and depletion capacitances are incremental capacitances, only are applied under the small-signal circuit condition. b) They are not constants, they have relationship with the voltage across the pn junction.

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Summary
Si

86

and Ge are IV elements with tetrahedron atomic structure They can be used to manufacture various devices Si is dominant because
better thermal stability due to large bandgap abundant (27 % in the Earth) and cheap

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Summary
When you find yourself competing with silicon, dont.

87

Arno Penzias, joined Bell Lab in 1961

best known for his work in radio astronomy, winning a Nobel Prize in 1978 for research that enabled a better understanding of the origins of the universe.

Tingye Li, joined Bell Lab in 1957

a world-renowned scientist in the fields of microwaves, lasers and optical communications. His innovational work on lightwave communications has had a far-reaching impact on information technology for decades
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Homework
February

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21 28

1.3 1.10 1.14 1.27 3.33 3.35 3.36 3.39 3.42

February

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Part 2. Analysis of diode circuits and applications of diodes

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Analysis of Diode Circuit

Models

90

Mathematic model Circuit model

Methods

of analysis

Graphical analysis Iterative analysis Modeling analysis

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The important equations and parameters

Refer

91

to Table 3.1 for details

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The Diode Models

Mathematic Model

92

i = I s (e I s e I s
The
v

nV T

1)
Forward biased Reverse biased

nV T

circuit models are derived by approximating the curve into piecewise-line.

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The Diode Models

Circuit Model
a) b) c) d) e)

93

Simplified diode model The constant-voltage-drop model Small-signal model High-frequency model Zener Diode Model

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Ideal Diode Model

bias short circuit Reverse bias open circuit
Forward

94

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Simplified Diode Model

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Simplified Diode Model

96

Piecewise-linear model of the diode forward characteristic and its equivalent circuit representation.

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Constant-Voltage-Drop Model

97

The constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward characteristics and its equivalent-circuit representation.

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Small-Signal Model

98

Development of the diode small-signal model. Note that the numerical values shown are for a diode with n = 2.

rd
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Small-Signal Model
Incremental resistance:
rd = nVT I DQ , ( n = 1,2)

99

*The signal amplitude sufficiently small such that the excursion at Q along the i-v curve is limited to a short, almost linear segment.

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High-Frequency Model
High frequency model
Related

100

to the bias Unable to be simply substitute by ideal ones.

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Zener Diode Model

101

VZ = VZ 0 + I Z rZ

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Method of Analysis

102

Graphical
Load

Analysis

line Diode characteristic Q operating point Visualization

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Load line

103

i i RL v VDD/R Slope= -1/RL

VDD v

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Method of Analysis
Iterative

104

analysis

Refer to example 3.4 (p.158)

Model

Analysis

Refer to example 3.6 (p.167) and 3.7 (p.169)

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The Application of Diode Circuits

Rectifier

105

circuits

Half-wave rectifier Full-wave rectifier The peak rectifier

Voltage Limiter

regulator

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Half-Wave Rectifier

106

(a) Half-wave rectifier. (b) Equivalent circuit of the half-wave rectifier with the diode replaced by its battery-plus-resistance model.

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Half-Wave Rectifier

107

(c) Transfer characteristic of the rectifier circuit. (d) Input and output waveforms, assuming that rD << R

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Parameter determination
In

108

selecting diodes for rectifier design, two important parameters must be specified:
The current-handling capability The peak inverse voltage (PIV)

It

is usually prudent, however, to select a diode that has a reverse breakdown voltage at least 50% greater than the expected PIV.

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Full-Wave Rectifier
Transformer

109

with a center-tapped secondary

winding Bridge rectifier

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Full-Wave Rectifier

110

(a) circuit (b) transfer characteristic assuming a constant-voltage-drop model for the diodes

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Full-Wave Rectifier

111

(c) input and output waveforms.

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The Bridge Rectifier

112

(a) circuit

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The Bridge Rectifier

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(b) input and output waveforms

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Peak Rectifier
The

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pulsating nature of the output voltage produced by the rectifier circuits discussed above makes it unsuitable as a dc supply for electronic circuits. A simple way to reduce the variation of the output voltage is to place a capacitor across the load resistor.

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Peak Rectifier

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The filter capacitor serves to reduce substantially the

variations in the rectifier output

CR >> T
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Peak Rectifier

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Voltage and current waveforms in the peak rectifier circuit with T CR >>

The diode is assumed ideal.

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Peak Rectifier
Waveforms

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in the full-wave peak rectifier.

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Self-study
3.8

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Limiting and clamping circuits 3.9 Special diode types 3.10 The SPICE diode model and simulation examples

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SUMMARY

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The silicon junction diode is basically a pn junction. Such a junction is formed in a single silicon crystal. The unidirectional-current-flow property makes the diode useful A silicon diode conducts a negligible current until the forward voltage is at least 0.5 V. Then the current increases rapidly, with the voltage drop increasing by 60 mV to 120 mV (depending on the value of n) for every decade of current change.

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SUMMARY

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The forward conduction of practical silicon diodes is accurately characterized by the relationship:
v

i = Is e

nVT

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SUMMARY
In

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the reverse direction, a silicon diode conducts a current on the order of 10-9A. This current is much greater than Is and increases with the magnitude of reverse voltage.

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SUMMARY
Beyond

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a certain value of reverse voltage (that depends on the diode) breakdown occurs, and current increases rapidly with a small corresponding increase in voltage.

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SUMMARY
A

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hierarchy of diode models exists, with the selection of an appropriate model dictated by the application. In many applications, a conducting diode is modeled as having a constant voltage drop, usually about 0.7V.

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Homework
March

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7, 2011

3.4 3.9 3 .22 3.74 3.84

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