9.

FORCE ANALYSIS OF MACHINERY

In the design of machine parts, the forces and torques acting on
individual elements should be analyzed carefully.
Bearings, pins, and other fasteners are usually critical elements
in machinery.
that is because of the concentration of forces acting on them.

9.1. INERTIA FORCE AND INERTIA TORQUE
Consider a rigid body in plane
motion subjected to the action
of external forces F
1
, F
2
,, F
n

as shown in fig 1

The resultant of these forces is


produces the linear acceleration of the mass center a
G
and angular
acceleration o of the rigid body.
The angular acceleration vector o need not be located at the
mass center G.
Let P be any element of the body, the mass of P being dm.
The acceleration of P is





where a
G
is the acceleration of the mass center G, and
a
P/G
is the acceleration of P relative to G.
) 1 (

= F R

) 3 ( ) ( ) (
) 2 (
/ /
/
t G P n G P G P
G P G P
a a a a
or
a a a
+ + =
+ =
Multiplying a
P
by the mass dm,



Where e and o are the angular velocity and angular
acceleration of the rigid body.
The resultant of a
P
dm is made up of:
i. The resultant of all forces like a
G
dm,
ii. The resultant of all forces like (a
P/G
)
n
dm, and
iii. The resultant of all forces like (a
P/G
)
t
dm
All forces like a
G
dm are all in the direction of the acceleration of
the mass center G.
The resultant of these forces is
, ) ( , ) (
) 4 ( ) ( ) (
/
2
/
/ /
o e r a and r a but
dm a dm a dm a dm a
t G P n G P
t G P n G P G P
= =
+ + =
) 5 (

= =
G G G
ma dm a dm a
Forces like (a
P/G
)
n
dm pass through the center of mass G and
their resultant is given by


e being the same for all lines on the rigid body,


But, rdm is the definition of the centroid and rdm = 0.


Forces like (a
P/G
)
t
dm have their resultant to be equal to


For the same reason as above the resultant of these forces is
) 6 ( ) ( ) (
2
/
dm r dm a
n G P
= e
) 7 ( ) ( ) (
2 2
/
dm r dm r dm a
n G P
= = e e
) 8 ( 0 ) (
2
/
= =

dm r dm a
n G P
e
) 9 ( ) ( ) (
/
dm r dm r dm a
t G P
= = o o
) 10 ( 0 ) (
/
= =

dm r dm a
t G P
o
Hence we conclude that the resultant of all forces acting on a
body producing acceleration of the body is


The resultant of all forces a
G
dm and (a
P/G
)
n
dm passes through the
mass center and does not create any moment.
But the force (a
P/G
)
t
dm do not pass through the mass center and
act at a radial distance of r; hence they produce a torque given
by



Knowing that the mass moment of inertia about the mass center
I
G
is defined as
) 11 ( a F R

= =
G
m
) 12 (
) (
2
/
dm r
dmr r r dm a T
t G P

=
= =
o
o
) 13 (
2

=
G
I dm r
The torque due to the resultant of the forces like (a
P/G
)
t
dm is
given by


Hence, the effect of the external forces acting on a rigid body in
motion is to produce
linear acceleration of the mass center G, and
Angular acceleration o of the rigid body

The resultant force R and the torque T can be replaced by a
single force R acting at a distance of e from the mass center
where e is given by
) 14 ( T

=
G
I
) 15 (
R
I
R
T
e
G
o
= =
9.2. DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
In dynamic analysis of machines, accelerations are usually
known from kinematic analysis.
Thus the forces required to produce these accelerations can be
determined from Newtons law of motion



Equation (16) and (17) can be written as




From equation (18) we have that the sum of all external forces
acting upon a body plus the fictitious force ma
G
is equal to
zero.
The fictitious force ma
G
is called inertia force, and has the
same line of action as the acceleration of the mass center a
G
,
but opposite in sense.
) 17 ( T
) 16 ( a F R
G
G
I
m
=
= =

) 19 ( 0
) 18 ( 0
=
=

o
G
G
I T
ma F
Similarly, from equation (19) the sum of moments of external
forces about an axis through the mass center G and the external
torques acting upon the body plus the fictitious couple -I
G
o is
zero.
The fictitious couple -I
G
o is known as the inertia torque and it
is opposite in sense to the angular acceleration o.
The addition of the inertia force and the inertia torque to a
dynamic system transforms it into an artificial state of equilibrium
known as dynamic equilibrium.
Which can then be treated as if the system were static.
This transformation of a dynamic system into an artificial static
system is known as DAlemberts Principle.
Equation (18) and (19) ca be written as




where F
e
and T
e
are the inertia force and inertia torque, respectively.
) 21 (
) 20 (

= =
= =
T I T
F ma F
G e
G e
o
9.3. LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS
There are three methods of linkage force analysis:
a) Superposition Method
b) Use of Transverse and Radial Components, and
c) Virtual Work Method.
These methods which can be solved either graphically or
analytically, have their relative advantage and disadvantage.

9.4. FORCE DETERMINATION
In considering equilibrium of forces, the following points should
be considered carefully.
i. A rigid body acted upon by two forces is in equilibrium only if the
two forces are collinear, equal in magnitude and opposite in sense.
ii. A rigid body acted upon by three forces is in static equilibrium if the
lines of action of these forces are concurrent through a point.
iii. A rigid body acted upon by a couple is in static equilibrium if only it
is acted upon by another coplanar couple equal in magnitude and
opposite in sense.
9.5. LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS BY SUPERPOSITION METHOD
In the superposition method, a linkage with several forces acting
on it can easily be analyzed by determining the effect of each
force separately, one at a time, and then combining the results to
get the cumulative effect.
The disadvantage of this method are:
i. It is tedious because each link has to be analyzed several times, and
ii. It does not give accurate solution where friction has to be
considered.
This method is best discussed by analyzing some examples.

9.6. RADIAL AND TRANSVERSE COMPONENTS
In determining the forces between two links subjected to inertia
forces, it is possible to work simultaneously with the forces in
determining their effect on the joint connecting the link.
In this case, the forces are resolved into components
perpendicular and parallel to the link to obtain the transverse and
radial components respectively.
Hence, treating all the joints that connect two links, we can find
the effect of all forces and torques.
In force analysis of linkages it is necessary to deal with a single
force that acts upon a two-joint link with a line of action crossing
the link at some point between the two joints.
fig 2 shows four-bar linkage with force F
3
acting at E b/n A and B.
F
3
is resolved into its radial and transverse components with
respect to A.

By taking moments about A, the effect of the transverse
component acting on link 3 is to produce a transverse force
on link 4 at point B.
The moment of these forces about A are equal.


From this equation can be obtained as



By considering similar triangles, due to can be found
graphically as shown in fig 2
TA
F
3
TA
F
34
) 22 (
3 34
AE F AB F
TA TA
=
TA
F
34
) 23 (
3 34
AB
AE
F F
TA TA
=
TA
F
34
TA
F
3
9.7. LINKAGE FORCE ANALYSIS BY VIRTUAL WORK METHOD
The virtual work method permits the treatment of the whole
system as a unit
Eliminates the link-to-link treatment unlike the other methods
However, the physical significance of forces is not easily
visualized.
This method works based on the following principle:
If a rigid body is in equilibrium under the action of external
forces, the total work done is zero for a small virtual
displacement of the body.
This small displacement is an imaginary one.
Consider particle A which is subjected to the force F as shown in
the figure below.
If the particle moves from A to A by the action of the force, the
work done during the displacement os is given by the dot
product of vectors F and os.



For a virtual displacement os, the virtual work done is zero; i.e.


If the system is in equilibrium under the action of all external
forces and torques as well as the inertia forces and torques,
then


Dividing each term by dt, we obtain
) 24 ( cosu o
o o
s F
s F U
=
=

) 25 ( 0 = U o
) 26 ( 0 = + + + =
n e G e n n n n
n n n
T S F T S F U ou o ou o o
) 27 ( 0 = + + + =
n e G e n n n n
n n n
T V F T V F U e e o
where











In using the virtual work method, the required velocity and
acceleration terms are obtained from kinematic analysis of the
mechanism and by substituting in the virtual work equation the
required quantities can be obtained.
) 32 (
) 31 (
) 30 (
) 29 (
) 28 (
n n n n e
G G n G e
n
G
G
n
I T
V a m V F
and
dt
dt
s
V
dt
s
V
n
n n n n
n
n
e o e
ou
e
o
o
=
=
=
=
=