Modelling Multiphase Flows

CE/ENVE 320 Vadose Zone Hydrology/Soil Physics
Spring 2004
Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or 2002-2004
Water Flow in Saturated Soils
Darcys Law
P
1
P
2
Hillel, pp. 173 - 177
Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004
Flow occurs from locations with high potential energy to locations of
lower potential energy in pursuit of equilibrium state.

The driving force for flow is called potential (energy) gradient, the
difference in potentials between two points in a system separated by
a certain distance.
Non Equilibrium and Flow
Potential Gradient i
High potential energy
Low potential energy
2
L
A
1
=

1
-

2
L L
i
2 1
A
=

=
i potential gradient
.. potential energy
L... distance between
the locations [L]
In general, gradients can develop due to differences in:

- Pressure
- Position in a gravity field
- Chemical concentration
- Temperature
- Position in an electrical field

leading to spontaneous flow of mass or energy.

We will focus on flow due to differences in hydraulic potential in this
section (neglecting solute potential).
Hydraulic Potential
h
=
z
+
m
+
p
Definition of Liquid Viscosity
Newtons Law of Viscosity
Early concepts in fluid dynamics are based on perfect fluids that
are assumed to be frictionless and incompressible. In a perfect fluid
contacting layers can exhibit no tangential forces (shearing
stresses) only normal forces (pressures).

Perfect fluids do not exist. In the flow of real fluids adjacent layers
do transmit tangential stresses (drag), and the existence of
intermolecular attraction causes fluid molecules in contact with
solid surfaces to adhere to it rather than to slip over it.

The flow of a real fluid is associated with the property of viscosity.
Before we discuss flow in soils it is advantageous to introduce
some basic concepts related to flow in general.
Liquid viscosity
The nature of viscosity can be visualized considering fluid motion
between two parallel plates; one at rest, the other one moving at
constant velocity.

Under laminar flow conditions water molecules are moving in
adjacent parallel layers. The layers transmit tangential stresses
(drag) due to attraction between fluid molecules.
Motion of fluid between parallel plates
The existence of intermolecular attraction causes fluid molecules
to adhere on the solid walls.
Newtons law of viscosity
The velocity distribution in the liquid is linear.
Maintaining the relative motion of the plates at constant velocity
requires the application of a constant tangential force to overcome
the frictional resistance in the fluid.
This resistance per unit area of the plate is proportional to the
velocity of the upper plate and inversely proportional to the distance
between the plates. The shearing stress t at any point is proportional
to the velocity gradient.
The viscosity q is the proportionality factor between t and the
velocity gradient
dy
dv
A
F
q t = =
t shearing stress (force F acting on an area A) [M L
-1
t
-2
]
dv/dy velocity gradient perpendicular to the stressed area (shear rate) [t
-1
]
q viscosity coefficient of the liquid in [Pa s] [M L
-1
t
-1
]
Viscosity is the property of the fluid to resist the rate of shearing
and can be visualized as an internal friction.
Newtons Law of Viscosity
Fluid flow in cylindrical tubes
L
P y
y P L y
A
= A =
2
2
2
t t t t
Fluid flows through a cylindrical tube having a diameter of 2R and length
L. We assume that the flow is laminar and caused by a pressure gradient
AP=P
2
-P
1
.
t
2
y P FpA =
L y Ff t t2 =
Pressure Force:
Frictional Resistance Force:
We equate the pressure
and frictional resistance
forces and solve for t
Flow through cylindrical tubes
Now we can introduce Newton's law of viscosity.
Substituting the integration constant back into our previous result yields
the expression for the velocity profile as a function of distance from the
tube axis
dy y
L
P
dv
L
P y
dy
dv
q
q
2 2
A
=
A
=
C
2
y
L 2
P
) y ( v dy y
L 2
P
dv
2
+
q
A
=
q
A
=
} }
q
A
= = +
q
A
4
R
L
P
C 0 C
2
R
L 2
P
2 2
( )
2 2
2 2
y R
L 4
P
4
R
L
P
2
y
L 2
P
) y ( v
q
A
=
q
A
+
q
A
=
The resulting ODE can be solved by integration.
Since we know that the velocity at y=R is equal to zero we can solve for
the integration constant
Poiseuilles law for flow in cylindrical tubes
L 4
R P
v
2
max
q
A
=
We know that the velocity is maximum at the center of the tube where
y=0, and can calculate v
max
.
If we divide this expression by the tube cross section we receive the
average flow velocity as:
To calculate the Discharge Rate (volume of water flowing through the
tube per unit time) we have to integrate the velocity profile over the
cross-sectional tube area. This can be done very simple by calculating
the volume of a paraboloid of revolution.
This relationship is known as Poiseuilles law. It shows that the volume
of flow is proportional to the pressure trop per unit distance and to the
fourth power of the tube radius.
L
P
8
R
Q
L 4
R P
2
R
t
V
Q
4 2 2
A
q
t
q
A t
= = =
|
.
|
\
|
A
q
=
L
P
8
R
v
2
Example: laminar flow in tubes
What is the average (laminar) flow velocity of water at 20
o
C
through a 50m long tube having a diameter of d=0.1m under a
pressure difference of 100 Pa ?
Viscosity of water at 20
o
C: q = 0.001 Pa s
s m 625 . 0 v
m
Pa
s Pa
m
50
100
001 . 0 8
05 . 0 05 . 0
v
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
.
|
\
|
A
q
=
L
P
8
R
v
2
Water Flow in Soils
Images of porous media pore space reveal that pores do not
resemble uniform and smooth circular tubes that form the basis for
Poiseuilles law.
Flow in porous media is generally described by macroscopic or
averaging terms that replace microscopic description of individual
flow pathways.

The first one able to quantitatively describe saturated flow through
porous media was HENRY DARCY a French engineer.
P
1
P
2
Flow of Water in Saturated Soil (Darcys Law)
Historical Background
Henry Darcy, a French engineer, was commissioned by
the city of Dijon to find a solution for cleaning the city's
water supply that was contaminated by the waste of
mustard industry.
Darcy, in search of suitable filtering media, conducted
experiments with sand-packed filters.
Water flux density (flux) J
w
Volume of water flowing through a unit
cross section per unit time.
Saturated hydraulic conductivity K
s
Proportionality coefficient between water
flux density and hydraulic gradient.
Historical Background
Darcy, in search of suitable filtering media, conducted
experiments with sand-packed filters
The pioneering work of Darcy published in 1856, provided the
fundamental law for fluid flow in porous media.
Darcys Law
z
K
t A
V
A
Q
J
h
s w
A
A
=
= =
J
W
water flux density [L/t]
Q discharge rate [L
3
/t]
V volume of water [L
3
]
A cross-sectional area [L
2
]
K
s
saturated hydraulic conductivity [L/t]
A
h
/Az hydraulic gradient [L/L]
Henry Darcy, a French engineer, was commissioned by the city
of Dijon to find a solution for cleaning the city's water supply
that was contaminated by the waste of mustard industry.
Darcy, in search of suitable filtering
media, conducted experiments with
sand-packed filters
The pioneering work of Darcy published
in 1856, provided the fundamental law
for fluid flow in porous media.
Darcys Law
z
K
t A
V
A
Q
J
h
s w
A
A
=
= =
Coordinates and conventions
For the application of Darcys law it is convenient to introduce a
sign convention for flux and heads when expressed in energy
per unit weight [L].
Upward flux is given a positive sign
The differences AH and Az, should be taken at the same order
(if taken AH=H
1
-H
2
then Az=z
1
-z
2
)
The negative sign in Darcys law ensures the algebraic
consistency of the equation.
+
-
+
-
H
1
, z
1
H
2
, z
2
1 2
Potentials and Heads
Potential Energy of Soil Water
As previously mentioned the potential energy of soil water can be
expressed in terms of chemical potential (energy/mass), soil water
potential (energy/volume), or soil water head H (energy/ weight).
g acceleration of gravity
w
density of water
H g
w
=
=
For many hydrological applications it is advantageous to express
potential as energy on weight basis (length).
This results in a simple notation for expressing heads as H=h+z

H the hydraulic head
h pressure (positive) or matric (negative) head
z gravitational head
Darcys Law - Vertical Flow
Example
A constant 20 mm of water is ponded on the
surface of a 50 mm long saturated vertical
sand column. What is the water flux from the
bottom of the column if the saturated
hydraulic conductivity is 50 mm/day?
(1) Define a convenient reference level
and designate it as z=0.

(2) Calculate the difference in hydraulic
head across the soil length
Solution
mm 70 mm 50 mm 20 z h H
in in in
= + = + =
mm 0 mm 0 mm 0 z h H
out out out
= + = + =
mm 70 mm 0 mm 70 H H H
out in
= = = A
Darcys results
Darcys Law - Vertical Flow
(3) Calculate the hydraulic gradient i:
4 . 1
mm 50
mm 70
z
H
i = =
A
A
=
day / mm 70 4 . 1 50 i K J
S w
= = =
with units of hydraulic head it is a
dimensionless quantity
Flux is downward
Note the energy loss in the soil!
(4) Calculate the flux.
Darcys Law - Horizontal Flow
Example
The sand column from case a is now placed horizontally with 90 mm
of water ponded on the left side and 20 mm on the right side. Find:
(1) the water flux density, and (2) the volume of water collected at the
outlet during 12 hr if the cross-sectional area of the column was
1000 mm
2
.
(1) Set the reference
level z=0 to coincide
with the axes of the
column

(2) Mark the column
inlet by x=0.
Sign convention
Solution
+
-
Solution Continued
(3) Calculate the difference in hydraulic head across the soil length
mm 90 mm 0 mm 90 z h H
in in in
= + = + = mm 20 mm 0 mm 20 z h H
out out out
= + = + =
mm 70 mm 20 mm 90 H H H
out in
= = = A
(4) Calculate the hydraulic gradient i:

(5) Calculate the flux.
with units of hydraulic head it is a
dimensionless quantity
4 . 1
mm 50
mm 70
z
H
i =
=
A
A
=
hr / mm 917 . 2 day / mm 70 4 . 1 50 i K J
s w
= = = =
Solution Continued
(6) Calculate the cumulative volume of flow
3
w w
mm 35004 917 . 2 12 1000 V
t A J V
t A
V
J
= =
=
=
Saturated Flow - Potential Diagram
A constant water pressure of 20
kPa was maintained at the bottom
of a 0.5 m vertical saturated soil
column, and the water height at
the columns top was also kept
constant at 20 mm. Given the soils
saturated hydraulic conductivity
K
s
= 5 mm/hr, find:
2 0 3 9 m m
2 0 m m
5 0 0 m m
(1) The direction of flow; draw a
system sketch and a potential
diagram

(2) The water flux density J
w

(3) The height of ponded water
on top of the column that causes
a cessation of flow.
| |
] m [
kg
s m
s m
kg
s m
kg
m
N
s
m
m
kg
Pa
h
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 3
=
(
(
(
(
=
(
=
(
=
First we convert the pressure at the bottom of the column from
potential (kPa) to head (m):
] m [ 039 . 2
81 . 9 1000
20000
g
h
w
=
= =
Then we assume the bottom of the column as reference level and

calculate the head at the top and the bottom as:
2 0 3 9 m m
2 0 m m
5 0 0 m m
] mm [ 520 500 20
TOP z TOP p TOP h
= + = + =
] mm [ 2039 0 2039
BOT z BOT p BOT h
= + = + =
With known K
s
we now calculate the flux density J
w
as:
Positive J
w
means flow from bottom to top.
2 0 3 9 m m
2 0 m m
5 0 0 m m
] [ 19 . 15
0 500
2039 520
5 hr mm
z z
K J
BOT TOP
BOT h TOP h
s w
=
=

The flow ceases when the hydraulic head at the top equals the
head at the bottom:
] mm [ 1539 500 2039
TOP p BOT h TOP h
= = =
2 0 3 9 m m
2 0 m m
5 0 0 m m
0
500
520
2039
520
z
[m
m]
[mm]
h
p
z

CE/ENVE 320 Vadose Zone Hydrology/Soil Physics
Spring 2004
Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or 2002-2004
Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity and Flow
Through Layered Soils
Hillel, pp. 185-190 & 193-195
Measurement of Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
Constant Head Method
A constant pressure head (50 mm) is
maintained on the top of a saturated
soil column of known cross-sectional
area (1000 mm
2
) and length (50 mm).

The outflow on the bottom is collected
over a certain period of time (5 hr) and
the outflow volume is determined
(25000 mm
3
).

With known and determined quantities
we can calculate the saturated
hydraulic conductivity.
Saturated hydraulic conductivity is an important medium property
used in many model calculations for flow and transport in soils.
First we rearrange Darcys law to receive an explicit expression for
saturated hydraulic conductivity K
sat
:
H
z
J K
z
H
K J
w s s w
A
A
A
A
= =
hr mm 5
5 1000
25000
t A
V
J
w
=
=
( ) hr mm 5 . 2
100
50
5 K
s
= =
Negative sign because of
downward flow
Note that the negative sign
of Darcys law ensures positive K
s
(There is no physical meaning to a
negative hydraulic conductivity)
We calculate the flux density from our measurements and the column
dimensions:
We apply Darcys law to calculate K
sat
:
Laboratory Setup
Falling Head Method
An alternative method for measurement of saturated hydraulic
conductivity does not require the maintenance of a of a constant
head nor any outflow measurement is called Falling Head Method.
Only initial and final depths of water
expressed as pressure head in length units
need to be recorded as a function of time.
The rate of decrease of depth of ponding is
equal to the flux density.
Darcys Law
dt
dh
A
a
t A
V
J
w
= =
|
.
|
\
|
=
z
H
K J
s w
A
A
We can equate Darcys law with the expression for flux density
derived from the rate of decrease of ponding and integrate the
resulting expression to derive a relationship for K
sat
:
( )
} }
=
=
+
+ =
2 t
0 1 t
s
2 h
1 h
s
dt
L
K
dh
L h
1
a L ) t ( h
L
K
dt
dh
A
a
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
2
1
2
s 2
s
2
1
H
H
ln
A
a
t
L
K t
L
K
L h
L h
ln
A
a
Typical Values of Ks in Soils
Saturated hydraulic conductivity Ks
Textural class
UNSODA Database
[cm/d]
NRCS Soil Survey Database
[cm/d]
Sand 506 713
Loamy sand 227 350
Sandy loam 42 106
Loam 39 25
Silt 56 6
Silt loam 31 11
Sandy clay loam 10 31
Clay loam 2 6
Silty clay loam 7 2
Silty Clay 8 0.5
Clay 26 5

Limitations of Darcys Law
Reynolds Number
q
v d
= Re
d effective pore diameter
v mean flow velocity
liquid density
q liquid viscosity
inertial forces
viscous forces
At high flow velocities inertial forces are no
longer negligible TURBULENT FLOW
In very fine textured media (clays)
adsorptive surface forces affect flow. The
flux density at low gradients is smaller than
predicted according to Darcys law
Saturated Steady Flow Through Layered Soil
Under steady-state flow conditions the
flux through both layers is equal.
We solve for H
2
and obtain two
equations:
Solving for flux density and introducing a effective saturated
hydraulic conductivity yields:
2
3 2
2 s
1
2 1
1 s w
L
H H
K
L
H H
K J

=
=
3
2 s
2
w 2
1 s
1
w 1 2
H
K
L
J H
K
L
J H H
+ =
+ =
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

= =
+
1 s
1
2 s
2
3 1
w
2 1
1 3
eff s
K
L
K
L
H H
J
L L
H H
K
Saturated Steady Flow Through Layered Soil
This solution can be generalized to a soil
profile having multiple layers.

The effective hydraulic conductivity for a
soil profile consisting of n layers, each
with distinct hydraulic conductivity K
s

and thickness L is obtained by setting
J
w
=K
s-eff
(H
n
-H
1
)/EL
i
This solution is valid for flow perpendicular to the layering (harmonic
mean).

For flow parallel to the layering we use an arithmetic mean weighed by
layer thickness
=
=
=
n
1 i si
i
n
1 i
i
) N ( eff s
K
L
L
K
=
=
=
n
1 i
i
n
1 i
i i
) P ( eff s
L
K L
K
Ks-eff (N)
Ks-eff (P)
A 1 m long glass tube having a radius of 1
mm was inserted into a 1 m long saturated
cylindrical soil column with a diameter of
100 mm, and K
s
of 0.01 mm/min. The water
head at the top of the column and at the
tubes inlet was 0.25 m while the outlets
where at atmospheric pressure.
Effective Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity - Example

2 5
1 0 0 0
250

1000
(1) What would be the total flux through
the column tube system and what
percentage is contributed by the tube?
(2) What is the effective Ks of the column-
tube system
To apply Poiseuilles law for average flow velocity within the
tube we first have to convert hydraulic head h(m) to hydraulic
potential
h
(Pa) using the following relationship:

2 5
1 0 0 0
250

1000
h g
w h
=
] Pa [ 12263 25 . 1 81 . 9 1000
h
= =
Note that the hydraulic head is the sum of
water head and tube length.
With known hydraulic potential we now can
solve Poiseuilles law:
|
.
|
\
|
=
L
P
8
r
v
2
A
q
] min mm [ 91620 ] s m [ 5330 . 1
1
12263
001 . 0 8
001 . 0
v
2
= =
|
.
|
\
|
=
The tubes flux Q
tube
is simply the product of average velocity
and the tubes cross-sectional area:

2 5
1 0 0 0
250

1000
The flux of the soil column Q
C
is given as:
] min mm [ 287833 1 91620 Q
3 2
tube
= = t
c w c
A J Q=
) z h ( K J
s w
A A =
min] mm [ 0125 . 0
1000
1250
01 . 0 J
w
= =
min] mm [ 98 ) 1 50 ( 0125 . 0 Q
3 2 2
C
= =
Then we calculate the total flux as the sum of column and tube flux:
The contribution of the tube to the total flux is calculated as:
min] mm [ 287931 98 287833 Q
3
T
= + =
[%] 96 . 99 100
287931
287833
100
Q
Q
[%]
T
tube
= = =
The systems (tube & column) flux density J
T
is simply the ratio of
the total flux Q
T
and the total cross-sectional area A
T
. The
systems effective saturated conductivity is calculated as:
) h z ( J K
T eff S
A A =

Total flux density
Effective saturated conductivity
min] mm [ 7 . 36
50
287931
J
2
T
=
=
t
min] mm [ 3 . 29
1250
1000
7 . 36 K
eff S
= =

Modelling Multiphase Flows

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CE/ENVE 320 Vadose Zone Hydrology/Soil Physics

Then we assume the bottom of the column as reference level and

Copyright Markus Tuller and Dani Or2002-2004

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