MARIA MONICA D. ESPINOSA,RN,MAN, Ed.D.

Faculty, Manila Doctors College of Nursing

Theory A coherent group of general propositions used as principles of explanation for a class of phenomena Concepts General notions or ideas. Proposition Statement of the relationships between concepts.

The earliest formal theories of learning. Deals on thoughts and feelings.

Behavior (John Watson) Muscle movement A result of series conditioned reflexes All emotion and thought is a result of behavior learned through conditioning.

A. Contiguity Theory Watson and Guthrie Emphasized on the contiguity of stimulus and response. Behavior is learned through a series of conditioned response.

Touching hot stove (S)

Fear of the Stove (behaviour)

Removing the Hands Immediately (R)

B. Reinforcement Theory Thorndike and Skinner Stimuli and response bonds are strengthened simply because they occur together. Behavior occurs because of its consequences (reinforcements or rewards) Reinforcement reward and punishment

Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

Praise, certification of accomplishments Award Pat on the back Grades, Prizes Food ( free lunch )

Recognition

Tangible rewards

Learning activities more interesting/more difficult clinical assignments School responsibilities - opportunities

Status indicators peer, tutor, having own space/desk Personal activities opportunity to engage in special projects and extra time off

Cognitive Science The study of how our brains work in the process of perceiving, thinking, remembering, and learning (Breur, 1993). Also described as Information

Processing.

 The focus of learning is on mental process rather than behavior. The focus is on mental processes that are responsible for behavior and its meaning. Learning (Feden, 1994) An active process in which the learner constructs meaning on prior knowledge and view of the world.

A. Subsumption Theory of Meaningful

Verbal Learning Earliest model of cognitive learning by Ausubel (1960) Proposed that new information is subsumed into existing thought and memory structures.

 Meaningful Learning thought to occur only if existing cognitive structures are organized and differentiated. Example: Before teaching aseptic technique, the students must have a some memory and understanding about microbiology.

B. Theory of Schema/Schemata Rumelhart (1980) Schemata knowledge structures that are stored in memory. All knowledge is packaged into units (schemata). E.g. Process of remembering route to work and recognizing people - remembering patterns of facts or visual,
auditory, or tactile cues: schemata

Three Kinds of Learning (Rumelhart & Norman)`

Accretion Learning of facts, new information learned, and added to the existing schema Tuning (Schema of Evolution) Existing schemata evolve or are refined Restructuring

C1. Levels of Processing Theory Information is process sequentially:

Perception Meaning Attention Labeling

C2. Parallel Distributing Model Proposes that information is processed by different parts of the memory system simultaneously rather than being a sequential process. C3. Connectionist Model Information is stored in many places throughout the brain, forming a network of connections

C4. Stage Theory of Information Processing Atkinson and Shiffrin Relates to memory activity Information is both processed and stored in three (3) stages:

S1: Sensory Memory Sensory memory is fleeting. See half second Hear 3 seconds S2: Short-Term Memory Last about 20 seconds S3: Long-Term Memory Last for > 20 seconds

Common Concepts of Cognitive Theories Learning Acquisition of knowledge and skills that changes a persons behavior. Metacognition Thinking about thinking A process learners use to gauge their thinking while reading, studying, trying to learn, or problem-solving.

Memory
Consolidation function in the memory process where items are stationed in the memory. The more we connect new information to old the more we ruminate over new information. Chunking clustering or grouping of words by some common element to form a chunk.

CHUNKING
Tree Closet Food Road Boy Battery Lake Book Chicken Chair

CHUNKS:

Boy, Chicken Tree (Living Things) Closet, Chair (Non-Living Things) Food, Book (Things you desperately need) Battery, Road, Lake (You need a battery in

your car to ride the road that takes you to the lake)

Transfer The ability to take information learned in one situation and apply it to another. Success of depends on: 1. The extent to which material was originally learned. 2. The ability to retrieve information from the memory.

3. The way in which the material was taught and learned. 4. The similarity of the new situation to the original.

Social Learning Theory or Social Cognitive Theory (Baranowski, Perry and Parcel,1997) They explained that behavior is the result of an interaction among the person (characteristic, personality, etc.), and the environment (physical, social, etc.), and the behavior itself.. A change in one of these factors all of them is termed: reciprocal determinism

Albert Bandura (1977): Self-Efficacy Theory Emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Applied extensively to the understanding of aggression (Bandura, 1973) and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification (Bandura, 1969).

Self-Efficacy is a determinant of motivation. The stronger someones belief in his or her ability to accomplish something, the more effort will be exerted and the longer he or she will persevere (Bandura, 1989)

Performance accomplishment: refers to learning that occurs through personal mastery of a particular skill or task. This is the most powerful source of efficacy expectation. Vicarious experience: or learning through observation. The people or events are the models. Modeling enables people to learn by watching.

Verbal persuasion: involves acting as the coach and providing encouragement.

COMPONENTS or PROCESSES: Attention (I see it, I hear it, I feel it..) Including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement)

Retention (I remember it) Including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal) Motor Reproduction (I do it) Including physical capabilities, selfobservation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback

Motivation (I appreciate, therefore I Repeat and Master it) Including external, vicarious and self reinforcement.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT LEARNER Adults are autonomous and self-directed. Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge . Adults are goal-oriented. Adults are relevancy-oriented. Adults are practical. As do all learners, adults need to be shown respect

Six factors serve as sources of motivation for adult learning:

Social relationships External expectations Social welfare Personal advancement Escape/Stimulation Cognitive interest

Andragogy

The art and science of helping adults learn. It is often interpreted as the process of engaging adult learners with the structure of learning experience. The study of being a teacher. The term generally refers to strategies of instruction, or a style of instruction.

Pedagogy

Comparison is based on the following: Need to know Self-concept Role of experience Readiness to learn Orientation to learning Motivation

Pedagogy

Andragogy

Need to Know

Learn what the teacher Need to know why wants them to learn they need something to learn Perception of being dependent on the teacher for learning The teachers experience, not the childrens is what counts Must be ready when the teacher says they must or they will not be promoted Subject-centered orientation Externally motivated Feel responsible for their own learning Adults learn from each others experience

Self-Concept

Role of Experience

Readiness to Learn

Ready to learn when they feel the need to know Life-centered or taskcentered orientation Primarily internally motivated, with some

Orientation to Learning Motivation

Adults are most interested in learning subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or personal life. Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-centered Adults are motivated to learn information for which they understand the purpose and see practical applications Adults want to take some control of their learning and be self-directed Adults learn from each others experience

THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE (GARDNER )States that there are various types of talent or seven forms of intelligence which may all be fully developed in a gifted person or child. On the average, about three to four types maybe possessed or developed by an individual.

1.

Linguistic deals with written and spoken words or language; the use and meaning of language. Logical/mathematical refers to inductive and deductive reasoning; abstractions and discernment of numerical patterns. Spatial/ visual involves the ability to visualize an object or to create internal or mental images; ability to transform or recreate images. Musical/rhythmic sensitivity to rhythm and beat, recognition of tonal patterns and pitch, and appreciation of musical expression.

2.

3.

4.

1.

Bodily kinesthetic taking in and processing of knowledge through the use of bodily sensation; learning is accomplished through the use of body language or physical movement.
Interpersonal intelligence emphasis on communication and interpersonal relationships. Intrapersonal intelligence related to inner thought processes such as reflection and metacognition; includes spiritual awareness and self knowledge.

2.

3.

Bloom

Piaget

Behaviors which are rewarded are more likely to occur. Sheer repetition without indications of improvement or any kind of reinforcement is a poor way to attempt to learn.

Threat and punishment have variable and uncertain effects upon learning; they make the punished response more likely or less likely to recur; they may set up avoidance tendencies which prevent further learning.

Reward to be most effective in learning, must follow almost immediately after the desired behavior and be clearly connected with that behavior in the mind of the learner.

Learners progress in any area of learning only as far as they need in order to achieve their purposes. Forgetting proceeds rapidly at first then move more and more slowly; recall shortly after learning reduces the amount forgotten.

Learning from reading is facilitated more by time spent recalling what has been read than by rereading.

The best way to help pupils form a general concept is to present the concept in numerous ways and varied situations, contrasting experiences with and without the concept, then to encourage their precise formulations of the general idea and its application in situations different from those in which the concept was learned.

The best way to help pupils form a general concept is to present the concept in numerous ways and varied situations, contrasting experiences with and without the concept, then to encourage precise formulations of the general idea and its application in situations different from those in which the concept was learned.

When children or adults experience too much frustration, their behaviour ceases to be integrated, purposeful or rational. No school subjects are markedly superior to others for strengthening mental powers.

What is learned is most likely to be available for use if it is learned in a situation much like that in which it is to be used and immediately preceding the time when it is needed. Children (and adults even more) remember new information which confirms their previous attitudes better than they remember new information which runs counter to their previous attitudes.

Adults need to know why they need to learn something before undertaking to know it.

Robert M.Gagn(1916-)

Gagne delineated the 8 types of learning:

* 8 types of learning: 1. The signal Learning 2. Stimulus-Response Learning 3. Chaining 4. Verbal Association 5. Discriminative Learning 6. Concept Learning 7. Rule Learning 8. Problem Solving

A.k.a. the conditioned response.

A person develops a general diffuse reaction to a stimulus The words became the signal that elicit response

Developing a voluntary response to a specific stimulus. the IV chamber is not dripping(stimulus) opening the clamp farther(Response)

Touching hot stove (S)

Fear of the Stove (behaviour)

Removing the Hands Immediately (R)

B. Reinforcement Theory Thorndike and Skinner Stimuli and response bonds are strengthened simply because they occur together. Behavior occurs because of its consequences (reinforcements or rewards) Reinforcement reward and punishment

Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) > Unconditioned Response (UCR) During the 1890s Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was looking at salivation in dogs in response to being fed, when he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever he entered the room, even when he was not bringing them food.

A series of conditioned responses or stimulus-response connection After checking the I.V line is not dripping, then after opening the clamp is not successful, the second step is to check for the return blood flow.

Finds to learn words easily because of its association. Ex. Megaly: is enlargement so can be associated with words Cardiomegaly, Cardio means the heart and the megaly means enlargement (enlargement of the Heart)

A person needs to discriminate to learn and retain large number of chains. Example: memorizing the drugs and its action.

Learning how to classify stimuli into groups represented by a common concept. Ex. Wound care

prevent Wound infection

A chain of concepts or a relationship between concepts. If then relationship

Ex. If prolonged supine position then will result to decubitus ulcer.

Recall and applying previously learned rules that relate to the situation.

Nosocomial urinary infection

a break in closed sterile system a break in Aseptic technique raising catheter into the level of the bladder causes backflow.

A. Help the student in defining the problem and the goal B. Help the students to recall necessary rules by means of questioning, suggestion and demonstration
Concept distinctiveness; - some students use more concept to help them define and solve problem