NDT COURSE MATERIAL PREPARED BY TEAM OF M/S.

INSPECTION NETWORK

LEVEL-II RADIOGRAPHY TESTING

LEVEL-II

RADIOGRAPHY TESTING

INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY
1.0 INTRODUCTION :

Radiography is non-destructive testing method to find out the internal discontinuities present in a component

or assembly.

It is based on differential absorption of penetrating radiation

by

the

part

being

inspected. Radiographic inspection is

used extensively on castings and weldments for steam power like Superheaters, Water Walls, systems and valves.

equipments (boiler and turbine components and assemblies) Downcomer Pipes,

Connecting tubes and Headers and other high pressure

2.0

PRINCIPLE :

2.1 Studying the homogeneity of an opaque material using penetrating radiation is called radiography. The shadowgraph obtained in radiography is a radiograph. When penetrating radiation such as X-

rays or Gamma-rays pass through a

material, it gets absorbed or attenuated. The degree of

absorption depends upon the thickness as well as physical density variation in the object. Higher the thickness, higher the absorption and

lesser the amount of radiation passing

if

through the part to record in the film. In the component ,

radiation will be

any discontinuity of lesser density exists, more amounts of

emerging out. These penetrated radiation is let to fall on the photographic film.

2.2

Photographic films are very sensitive to X-rays and

Gamma-rays. When the films are

exposed, photo chemical

reaction takes place which can be converted to black and process known as film

white image of internal structural variation of the part, by a processing.

2.3

The following discontinuities can easily be detected by

radiography:
4

A.WELD DISCONTINUITIES: 1. Gas holes and porosities 2. Slag inclusions 3. Tungsten inclusion 4. Lack of fusion 5. Lack of penetration 6. Crack 7. Undercuts 8. Burnthrough

B.CASTINGDISCONTINUITIES 1. Sand inclusions 2. Gas inclusions 3. Shrinkage 4. Hot tear 5. Crack 6. Cold shut 7. Unfused chaplets 8. Chills

3.0

RADIATION SOURCES :

3.1

X-rays :

3.1.1 Conventional X-ray machines ranging from 100 KV to ray machines such used for industrial

420 KV and high and high energy X-

as Linear Accelerators and Betatrons energy ranging from 2 MeV to 25 MeV are radiography purposes. Portable equipment upto 300 KV are available
5

for field radiography.

3.1.2 When fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped by a

target X-rays are generated.

To make the electron free from cathode and move towards the anode (target) current of the

order of several kilo-voltage and to heat the filament and control the electron quantity, current of the

order of milli-amperage is required. In other words, the quality of the X-rays produced are controlled by

kilo-voltage and quantity by milli-amperage. Associated with X-rays huge amount of

heat

is

produced and it is very much essential to dissipate

the heat to cool down the equipment to increase

the life of the tubes. The X-rays bulb is immersed in oil bath and the oil bath in turn is cooled down by

water circulation.
6

TABLE I PENETRATING POWER CF X-RAYS OF VAPIOUS KILO-VOLTAGE

K.V X-rays Tubes 150 250 400 K.V High Energy Sources 2 MeV 4 MeV 6mm to 250mm 25mm to 300mm 15mm 40mm 65mm Penetration range mm of steel Penetration range mm of steel

3.2.0 Gamma-Ray Sources :

3.2.1 Certain naturally available elements with high atomic

number like radium dis-integrates

to another element by

shedding

out

positively

or

negatively

charged

particles.

This disintegration is always associated with production of self-decaying process is known

gamma rays and these

As radio-activity is induced artificially by bombarding the element elements with the same

with Neutrons. Such

atomic number but with different mass number are called

'ISOTOPES'. These radioactive isotopes are gamma-rays generators.

3.2.2 Commonly used gamma-ray sources and their properties are given in Table-II.

TABLE - II

Sl. No.

Name of the Isotope

Symbol

Main energy MeV

Half Life Period

Application

01

Cobalt-60

Co60

1.33; 1.17

5.3 Yrs

35mm to 200mm steel

02

Iridium-192

Ir. 192

0.61 to 0.29

71 days

10mm to 60mm of steel

03

Cesium-137

Cs137

0.66

33 Yrs

10 mm to 75mm of steel 2mm to 10mm of steel or upto 25mm of Aluminium

04

Thulium-170

Tm 170

0.084 to 0.96

127 days

For thermal power station applications, Ir. 192 is commonly

used

for

filed

radiography. Since Co.60 got greater hazard

restricted to

comparing to Ir. 192 its application is usually

thickness

closed enclosures. However for the examination of higher field radiography.

components, Co.60 is also being used at times in

Due to self decay process, the strength of the source one half life period. This the source at some time.

reduces to half at the end of each replenish

process is continuous and it becomes necessary to

3.3

Properties of X-rays and Gamma-Rays :

3.3.1 Both are electromagnetic radiation traveling In Straight line

light. Their presence cannot be felt by

with

the

velocity

of

any of our organ. They Ionize the medium to which they

pass through. Their photo chemical properties are

9

advantageously used to expose films and fluorescent

of living cells poses radiation hazard.

properties for fluoroscopy. But destruction

3.3.2 X-ray can be generated as and when required and its

energy an be controlled. Where as the

emission of gamma- rays are spontaneous and its energy level cannot be changed. Depending upon the thickness and type of material, the correct isotope is to be selected. The size of equipment is small comparing to X-ray the gamma-ray cooling

machine and is free from external power and no

system is required. Hence isotopes are widely used in

erection site and the facility to keep the machine. But gamma-ray source

source inside the pipe is and added advantage of isotopes over X-ray

is a self decaying one so a recurring expenditure on changing the source is unavoidable.

10

4.0

RECORDING MEDIA :

4.1.0 X-ray films are the recording media in radiography. ray films are coated on both sides of a transparent

Unlike photographic films, Xflexible base of either cellulose

triacetate or polyester, using proper adhesive.

4.2

Films are classified as slow speed, medium speed and

fast speed depending upon the

grain size of the

emulsion.
films as per ASTM E 94/74.

Table-III below gives the type of Industrial Radiographic TABLE - III

Film Type 01. Description Speed Low Contrast Very High

Graininess Very Low

02.
03.

Medium
High

High
Medium

Low
High 11

For the radiography of high pressure components either type-I or type-II films are used. The following

are the

brands of different films commonly used for radiography.

Type-I 01. Afar Geared D2,D4,D5

02. Indus NDT 55

03. Kodak M.

Type-II Films

01. Agfa Gevaert D7

02. Indu NDT 65; 70 03. Kodak A, AA.

5.0

INTENSIFYING SCREENS :

5.1

All the radiation reaching the film will not inter-act with the emulsion to have photo-chemical reaction. radiation falling on the film will just pass through it. To increase the photo-chemical
12

99% of the reaction

and thus to cut short the exposure time and to increase

screens known as

the radiographic contrast radiographic

the film during

intensifying screens are pressed into intimate contact with

exposure. Screens are of two types, viz., intensifying screens.

metallic screens (usually lead screens) and fluorescent

5.2

Lead Screens : It is the combination of filtration and intensification that makes lead screens the most widely absorbed by a lead screen a lower

used in industrial

radiography. Low energy radiation is more readily

than high energy radiation.

Because scattered radiation from a test piece is always of

energy than the incident beam passing through a

test piece, a lead screen will absorb a relatively image forming radiation. Scattered

high percentage of unwanted scattered radiation than the radiation arise mainly

from the test piece (internal scattering) and from the table
13

or floor on which the film with its holder is placed during exposure (back scatter).

Because

of the need to filter out both internal scatter and back-scatter, two screens are normally used. The screen

that faces the subject and source of radiation is refereed to as

the front screen and the screen behind the

film towards the table or floor is referred to as the

back

screen;

both

screens

absorb

scattered

radiation.

In practice the front screen is the thinner of the two because the image forming radiation

always

must pass through the screen. The usual thickness of the front lead screen is 0.1mm and back screen is

0.15mm for Ir.192.

14

5.3

FLUORESCENT SCREENS :

Fluorescent intensifying screens fluoresce or produce

rays. Certain

light when excited by X-rays or Gamma-

compounds such as calcium tungstate or barium lead sulphate have the property of upon excitation by short-wave length radiation. These screens are widely

emitting light immediately

used in medical radiography and its

use in pressure part's radiography is not permitted.

6.0

FILM PROCESSING :

6.1
film

By a chemical process the latent image formed during exposure is made visible and permanent. The
are to be handled in a dark room fitted with safe light. The safelight will give the required illumination

and at the same time the particular colored light will not affect the film. Generally lights with olive green or red orange filter is used as safelight. The film emulsion will get affected by high temperature. So the dark room should be air- conditioned.

15

6.2

The film processing includes 5 steps.

6.2.1 Developing : In developer the exposed silver bromide is reduced to silver developer is an alkaline solution of various compounds and the reducing action is slow at temperature below 180C. At temperature above 300C, the film emulsion will get damaged. Hence the developer temperature is to be maintained at 200C by refrigeration system and the recommended developing time is 5 minutes at 200C. Prolonged development will fog the image. Development in higher temperature will result in poor contrast.

6.2.2 Rinsing :

Once the developing is over, the film turn to black colour and the
transparent due to the existence

same

time is not

of undeveloped emulsion on the film. The unexposed ordinary light and turn black.
16

emulsion will again react with light when it is taken out in

Hence, it is essential to remove the unexposed emulsion before going for the removal or fixing. The developer on the film is to be removed or neutralized by rinsing. So, containing ordinary water or

after developing, film is immersed in another tank water with glacial acetic acid

for few minutes to stop the developing action.

6.2.3 Fixing : In fixer, the in exposed silver bromide is dissolved away which is black in color will any only the converted silver structural

remain on the film which will represent the internal in nature.

variation of the part. The fixer solution is acidic

6.2.4 Washing :
The film coming out of fixer will have chemicals carried over, which the to be thoroughly

washed, otherwise the film will get discoloured after some time, when in storage.
17

To remove the chemicals, films are thoroughly washed in running water.

6.2.5 Drying : After washing the films in running water for about 20 to 25 minutes, films are dried. Dust free

hot air of temperature 1000F to 1200F is used for drying the film.
used for drying the film. Once

Drying Cabinet or rooms are

the film is dried, the radiograph is ready for evaluation.

7.0

IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS ( PENETRAMETERS):

7.1

Penetrameters are used to determine the ability of the

radiographic process to record images

of small flaws or the sensitifity. Penetrameters are of known size and shape and
attenuation characteristics as the material in the test piece.

have

the

same

Penetrameters preferably are located in

regions of maximum test piece thickness and greatest test

18

Piece to film distance, and near the outer edge of the

central beam of radiation. The image

of the Penetrameters that appears on the finished radiograph evaluated during Interpretation to assure that the desired sensitivity, definition and contrast have been achieved in the Penetrameters of different designs have been developed by various developed image. standards-making

organizations. Applicable codes, specifications or

determine the type of Penetrameters to be used.

purchase

agreements

usually

7.2

The three basic types of Penetrameters in used are: 1. Plaque type 2. Wire type and 3. Step wedge type

7.2.1 Plaque type penetrameter consists of strips of material of uniform thickness with holes drilled through them. ASTM, ASME and AWS specifies for such type Penetrameters.
19

Designation The holes are 1T, 2T and 4T in diameter, where T is the thickness of the plaque. Various degrees of image quality can be measured by using plaque type Penetrameters of different thickness.

Sensitivity is usually expressed in terms

of Penetrameters thickness (as a percentage of test piece

thickness) and resolution is determined by the smallest hole size visible in the radiograph. For instance, an image quality level of 2 - 2T indicates that the thickness of the Penetrameter equals 2% of

section thickness and the 2T hole is visible. If image quality of 1-1T were required, a radiograph would be acceptable if the outline of a 1% penetrameter and the 1T hole in that penetrameter were distinguishable.

20

7.2.2 Wire type penetrameter :

A typical wire penetrameter is the standard of DIN 54109, which consists of sixteen of wires of each
of three metals-steel, aluminium and copper. The wire diameters decreases in geometric progression from 3.2mm (wire No. 1) to 0.1mm wire number 16. TABLEIV NUMBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 (MM) 3.2 2.5 2.0 1.6 1.25 1.0 0.8 0.63 0.5 0.4 0.32 0.25 0.20 0.16 0.12 0.10
21

The Standard for a given materials is contained in the

plastic

envelopes,

suitably

marked for identification. Each envelops contains seven wires Viz.

DIN 62 FE 1 DIN 62 FE 6

ISO ISO

7 12 16 does not provide constant

DIN 62 FE 10 ISO

In contrast to the ASTM System, the DIN System sensitivity, the sensitivity

varies with test piece thickness within each thickness range.

% Sensitivity = of smallest wire seen of the Radiograph Thickness under the penetrameter x 100 Lesser the value, higher the Sensitivity.

22

7.2.3 Step Wedge Penetrameter : Usually have either an arithmetic or geometric progression plain step wedge penetrameter is of stop thickness. A

useful only for determining the ability of a radiograph to

resolve variations in test piece thickness it cannot be used to evaluate the effect of geometric unsharpness. However, if a plain step wedge is modified by drilling holes in each This type of design is used by the

step, it becomes sensitive to geometric unsharpness. British Welding

Research Association (BWRA) and French Navy (AFNOR).

8.0

DIFFERENT TECHNIQUS OF RADIOGRAPHY :

side and film is kept at opposite

8.1 In a simple radiographic techniques, source is kept at one sides of the object as

shown in Figures -1. This is a single wall single image

techniques. Welds similar to plate weld or in big cylinder

techniques. When the length

can be radiographed with this

Segments to

of the weld is more, the weld is divided into small

suit the film length available and processing

23

Capability. Sufficient overlap is to be given at the we should see that density of the weld will go untested. is within the range of -15% and + 30%.

8.2

The inspection of complex shapes most often required directions. The selection of views for each exposure

multiple exposures, usually with different depends primarily on the shapes of the

viewing

section of the test

piece to be inspected with that exposure and the probable orientation of suspected Viz., the double wall

flaws. There are other three major inspection techniques for tubular section or pipes

double image techniques, double wall

single image techniques and panoramic.

8.2.1 Double Wall Double Image Techniques :

This techniques is applicable mainly to sections of no more than 3 " O.D. This techniques produces
a radiograph in which the images of both walls of a tubular section are

24

Super imposed on one another. The beam of radiation the section and the section. Fig : Set up for a Double Wall Double Image Techniques

is directed towards one side of

recording surface is placed on the opposite side, usually tangent to the

Two exposures, 90 apart are required to provide complete converge when the ratio of OD to ID is 1.4 or less. When the ratio of OD to ID is greater than 1.4, the number of exposure required to provide complete coverage can be determined by multiplying that ration by 1.7

and rounding off to the next higher integer. The circumferential displacement between shot is found by dividing 180 by the number of shots if the number is even. When an odd number of exposures are required for complete coverage, the angular spacing between shots as an can be determined by dividing 360 by the number of shots as an alternative to dividing 180 by the number. This alternative cannot be used when the number of shots is even because
25

of half of the resulting radiographs would be mirror images radiographs and sections of the outside

of

the

remaining

circumference would not receive adequate coverage. sometime called the

Variation of the double wall, double image techniques,

'Corona' or 'off set' techniques is often used the inspection of circumferential butt welds in small diameter tubing and pipe (Fig. above.) In the corona techniques, the central beam is

directed at activate angle to the run of the tube 'see fig. above) so than a straight band. The
offset angle of the radiation beam must be large enough that the image of the upper section of the weld zone does not overlap the image of the lower portion, but not so large as to introduce an

unnecessary degree of distortion. Also the larger the offset angle, the greater the probability that
the techniques will fail to detect incomplete fusion at the root of a plain butt weld. The correct number of
26

The area of coverage is limited by geometric unsharpness extremities of the resolved image for

and distortion

at the

the hollow cylinders that are less than about 15 in. In limiting factor. There must be

outside diameter. For larger cylinder, film size is the usual

enough overlap between adjacent exposures to ensure that all the outside circumference is clearly recorded.

8.2.3

Panoramic Exposures : circumference of a pipe in single at

This techniques can be used to radiograph the entire exposure or several small

components arranged in a semi-circle by keeping the source

the centre. By providing a hole near the weld in a ray source

thick walled pipe (Gamma hole), the gammaweld can be

can be inserted inside the pipe to the centre and the entire

radiographed in one exposure. By this method

27

exposure, and the circumferential location of corresponding

view

can

be

determined for the corona techniques in the

double image technique.

same manner as for the basic double wall,

8.2.2 Double Wall, Single Image Technique : Double Wall, Single image technique is applicable mainly to hollow cylinders and tubular sections exceeding 3" in outer diameter. This techniques producers plane, a radiographic although section, the so

image of only the section of the wall that is closest to the radiation penetrates both

recording

walls, the source is positioned relatively close to the

that the blurring caused by geometric to

unsharpness in the image of the cylinder wall close set distinguishable. Only the image of the wall the basis of

the source makes that image completely in

section closest

to the film is sharply defined. Exposures are calculated on

double the wall thickness of the hollow section techniques.

as they are for the double wall, double image

28

the disadvantage of giving longer exposure due to the several exposures to cover full circumference can be avoided.

double

wall

penetrating

and

9.0

GEOMETERIC UNSHARPNESS :

9.1

Radiographic definition varies according to the geometric relationships among size, source object to image distance. When radiation from a finite size shadow for radiation emanating

to object distance and

produces a shadow that portion of the image that is in

from all points on the surface of the source is a region of complete shadow, known as the umbra. Portions of the image that are in partial show for radiation from some portion, are regions of unsharpness in equal

shadow, known as penumbra. The degree of geometrical

to the width of the penumbra.

29

Geometrical Unsharpness (Penumbra) Effect of shadow formation by different parameter. Mathematically, the geometric unsharpness is determined from the laws of similar triangle as illustrated can be expressed as 0g = s x t f Where 'S' is the size of the source or focal spot, it is the object to image distance and 'F' is

the source to object distance. The amount of geometric unsharpness can be

reduced by

lengthening the source to object distance, reducing the size of the source or focal spot or reducing object to image distance.

In applications, where the maximum unsharpness must be kept below a specific known value (Specified by the
30

governing code) so as to resolve certain types and sizes of

flaws, the radiographer can above.

determine the minimum source to object distance for a given part from the equation given 10.0 Density : Another factor controlling the quality of the radiograph is blackening of a photographic emulsion called density . Density D = log10 Io It Where D = Density Io = Intensity of light incident on the film. It = Intensity of light transmitted through the film. Density 0 0.3 0.6 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 Capacity Io / It 1 2 4 10 100 1000 10000

density. The quantitative measure of

31

Density can be measured using a densitometer or can be compared with a precalibrated density strip. The minimum density recommended for radiographs with X rays is 2.0 Maximum can be radiographs above density. 2.0 11.0 INTER PRETATION OF RAIOGRPAHS : 11.1 A Qualified interpreter must : rays is 1.8 and with gama viewing up the 3.5 to 4.0 Higher intensity illuminator is required for

a.

define the quality of the radiographs image which includes a critical analysis of the radiographic
image developing producers.

producers and the

b. piece.

Analyses the image to determine the nature and extent of any

abnormal condition in the test

c.

Evaluate the test piece by comparing interpreted

information

with

standards

or

specification and .

d.

Report inspection results accurately, Clearly and within

proper admistrative channels.

32

11.2 Viewing or Radiographs :

Viewing of radiographs should be done in an area with reflections from subdued lighting to minimize distracting on opal glass or

the viewing surface. The viewing apparatus should have

plastic screen large enough to

accommodate the largest film to be interpreted. The screen

should

be

illuminated from behind with light of

sufficient intensity to reveal variations in photographic density may be a need for a smaller, more intensely upto 4.5 or more. Viewing apparatus

upto a nominal film density of at least 3.0. There

illuminated viewer for evaluating small areas of film having densities screens of high intensity

illuminator should be cooled by blowers or other suitable and to extend lamp life.

to prevent excessive heat form damaging films

12.0 RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE OF SPECIFIC TYPE OF

FLAWS :

33

12.1 Porosity (Gas Holes) The porosity may be spherical, elongated or worm hole random, clustered or linear shapes and in pattern that are

on a radiograph, the spherical voids have the appearance

of rounded dark area, while the non-spherical voids have an elongated dark area with smooth outline.

12.2 Tungsten Inclusion :

Tungsten inclusions are lighter than the surrounding areas and may be rounded or irregular.

12.3 In complete Penetration :

Appears as a dark straight line though the centre of the

is determine by the root

weld. The width of the indication

gap and amount of weld penetration.

34

12.4 Slag Inclusion : Appears darker than the surrounding area and may be in the direction of the deposited weld bead. irregular in shape or elongated

12.5 Lack of Fusion :

Appears as a dark indication usually elongated and

varying in width.

12.6 Crack : Appears as a dark jagged or straight line.

12.7 Icicles (Tear Drops) : Appears as individual, rounded lighter indications with an occasional small dark spot in the centre of drop.

12.8 Burn Through : Appears as an individual darkened area of elongated or surrounded lighter ring. by rounded contour which may be a
35

12.9 Under Cut : Appears as a relatively straight and narrow dark line and sides of the root opening locations. can be located on either or both

13.0 EVALUATION :

13.1 A flaw detected by radiography is meaningless unless

compared to a known condition. conditions in

Evaluation consists of comparing the interpreted image with the least acceptable

terms of the type, size quantity and severity

level of any flaws that are found. The result

of this comparison is a judgments to accept or reject the part.

36

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
1.0 1.1 INTRODUCATION : UL transonic inspection is a non destructive destine method to find out surface and subabove the

surface discontinuity in a components vibrational waves which have a frequency hearing range of the normal ear are called 'UL Cps. UL

transonic' waves i.e., frequency above 20,000 the range of 200K cps. to loss

transonic waves used in the industrial applications are in

20M Cps. (25 MHz). The sound waves travel through the materials with some attendant

of energy (attenuation) and are reflected at interfaces.

analyzed to define the presence and location of flaws.

The reflected beam is detected and

2.0

PRINCIPLES :
When UL transonic waves from a generating crystal are made to propagate in a material

through proper coupling, it

will be partially reflected or refracted when there is change

37

in medium or an interface say the presence of a of the sound entry. The

discontinuity or the opposite surface the

energy of the reflected UL transonic waves depends upon

severity of the defect, the area of the orientation with respect to the direction of the sound entry. the
reflected wave or the transmitted wave is picked by a receiver and amplified for evaluation.

3.0
3.1

BASIC EQUIPMENTS :
Most UL transonic inspection system include the following basic equipment. alternating stage when electrically

3.1.1 An electronic signal generator that produces bursts of triggered. 3.1.2 A sending transducer (probe or search unit) that emits a bursts of alternating voltage are applied to it. 3.1.3 A couplet to transfer UL transonic waves to the test piece.

beam of UL transonic waves when

3.1.4 A receiving transducer to accept and correct the output of UL transonic waves from the test
piece. One single transducer can be used both as a transmitter and receiver.
38

3.1.5 An electronic device to amplify and if necessary modify the

signals from the receiving

transducer.
3.1.6 A display or indicating device to characterize or record the output from the test piece. The display device may be an computer print out. 3.1.7 An electronic clock or timer. 4.0 4.1 TRANSDUCERS : Transducers are the ear in UL transonic testing Generation and detections of UL Oscilloscope, a chart or strip recorder, a marker, indicator or alarm device, a

transonic waves for inspection is

accomplished by means of a transducer element acting piece electronic crystal.

through a couplet. The active element in a search unit is a Piezo electricity is ' pressure

electricity'. As the name implies, an electric charge is developed by the

crystal when pressure is applied to it. Conversely, when an electrical field is applied, the crystal mechanically shape). The most
39

deforms

(Changes

Common types of Piezo electric materials used for UL

transonic search units are quartz,

lithium sulphate, and polarized ceramics such as barium titanate and lead metaniobate.

5.0

GENERAL CHARACTERSTICS OF ULTRANSONIC WAVES :

5.1

UL transonic waves are mechanical waves that consist of vibrations of the atomic or

molecular particulars of a substances about the equilibrium positions of these particles. They can

propagate in an elastic medium, which

can be soiled, liquid or gaseous but not in vacuum. Like

refracted when they

Light beams, ultrasonic beams are reflected from surfaces,

cross a boundary between two substances that have different characteristic sound and diffracted at edges or around Obstacles. reduces the

velocities

Scattering by rough surfaces or particulars which

energy of an ultrasonic beam, comparably to the manner in

scattering reduces the intensity of a light beam.

40

5.2

Velocity is the product of frequency and wave length. V = f Where V = Velocity in metres per second. f = frequency in hertz (Cycles per second) = wave length in meters per cycles. on the basis of the mode of particles displacement, Ultrasonic waves Ultrasonic are classified also as

longitudinal waves, Snell's law.

transverse, waves, surface waves and lamb waves,

waves

follow

5.3

LONGITUDINAL WAVES : Longitudinal waves : Sometimes called compress ional waves are the type of Ultrasonic waves most series of alternates compressions

widely used in the inspection of metals. They travel through metal as a

and refaractions in which the particles transmitting the wave vibrate back and forth in the directions of

travel of the waves. Longitudinal ultrasonic waves are readily propagated in

well as in elastic solids. The velocity

liquids and gases as

41

of longitudinal Ultrasonic waves is about 6000 m/ seconds in steel, 1500 m. per second in water and 330 M per sec. in air.

5.4

TRANSVERSE WAVES : Transverse waves or shear waves are also extensively used in the Ultrasonic inspection of same

metals. It travels with a

velocity of 50% of the longitudinal wave velocity of the materials.

materials. Air and water will not support transverse 5.5 Surface Waves :

Surface waves are another type of Ultrasonic waves used in the inspection of metals. These waves travel along the flat or curved surface of relatively thick solid parts. Surface

waves are subject to less attenuation in a given materials than are longitudinal or transverse
waves. They have a velocity approximately 90% of the transverse wave velocity materials.
42

in

the

same

6.0 6.1

MAJOR VARIABLES IN ULTRASONIC INSPECTION : Frequency : capability in several ways. discontinuity, is

6.1.1 Frequency of the Ultrasonic waves used affects inspections Sensitivity or the ability of an

Ultrasonic inspect on system to detect a very small

generally increased by using relatively high

separate ` indications from

frequencies

system

to

give

simultaneous,

discontinuities that are close

together both in

depth below the frequency band with and in closely related to pulse

length, but is not affected by

frequency. Penetration or maximum depth in a materials

detected is reduced 6.1.2 Table : by the use of high frequencies.

from which useful indications can be

Recommended frequencies for different applications

200 KHz to 1 MHz - Examination of castiron and steel

castings are relatively coarse grained materials such as copper.

43

400 KHz to 5 MHz

- Castings steel, Equilibrium

brass

and other materials with

1 MHz to 5MHz bars and millets.

refined grain size.

- Rolled products, metallic sheets, plate,

2.25 MHz to 10 MHz

tubes and sheets. 1 MHz to 100 MHz 1 MHz to 2.25 MHz 6.2 Angle of Incidence :

- Drawn and extrude products

bars

- Forgings - Welding.

Only when an Ultrasonic wave is incident at right angles on an interface between two materials (angle of incidence = 0') transmission and reflection occur at the interface without any change in beam direction. at any other angle of incidence refraction and mode conversion (Splitting the wave and a change in the nature of wave motion) take place. Longitudinal waves splits into longitudinal wave and steer wave when the beam strike the surface at an angle.
44

The angle of incidence can be adjusted in such a way that the longitudinal waves grade the surface and

only shear wave exists in the part. Hence confusion arising

discontinuity can be avoided. 6.3 COUPLANT :

out of both the waves picking up the

The couplant as the name implies couples the transducer to the surface of the test specimen to ensure efficient sound transmission from transducers to test surface. This is done by something out the irregularities of the test surface and by excluding all air between the transducers and the test specimen. Commonly used couplants are water, glycerin. machine oil, grease, paraffin etc. For a smooth surface water, glycerin or machine oil can be used. Grease is used for the rough surface and also when test is to be conducted in a vertical alone of over- head position. The couplant materials must be homogenous and free from solid particles or air bubbles. 7.0 7.1 TYPES OF TESTING : Descending upon the probe is positioned with the part the testing method is classified as
45

Contac testing and immersion

testing. Also the examination is further classified as the indications are displayed for interpretation.

' scan 'B' scan and 'C' scan by the way how

7.2 in

The most widely used techniques is contact testing, 'A' Scan display due to its simplicity operation and minimum in number and size of equilibrium to be handled. In 'A' scan the

indication is displayed on cathode ray tube (CFT) as vertical pipes or echoes. The height of the echo respecting the severity of the discontinuity and its location denotes the location of the discontinuity with respect to the entry surface Ultrasonic beams are send as pulled beams and the

techniques is known as pulse echo techniques.

By suitably calibration the time base, the depth of the discontinuity can be directly read out from the CRT.
46

7.3

Sound beam can be directed to the test piece at an angle also. Such of testing are

known as and beam testing.

FIG : CONTACT TESTING ANGLE BEAM SCANNIG In angle beam testing shear waves are used for testing. The angle is selected in such a way that the longitudinal waves grazes the surface and shall not interfere with the result. Depending upon the thickness, the angle of refraction is chosen.

Thickness mm Angle

Upto 15mm 800

15 30 700

30 to 60 600

Over 60 450

The distance read out from the CRT is not the actual depth or the defect is not exactly under the probe as in the case of normal beam scanning. The depth of the discontinuity and the location of it have to be Calculated based upon the refracting angle.
47

8.0 8.1

CALIBRATION AND STANDARDISATION : Specially designed calibration blocks are used in contact testing to check the operation

of ultrasonic instruments and transducers and to make certain adjustments to the instruments and transducers to best suit the testing conditions. Al though Various types of reference blocks are available, the commonly used is the one designed by the international Institute of welding. With this block, the test range, Institute of welding. With this block, the test range, sensitivity, reflection, angle of the probe etc. Can be checked, Reference blocks establish a standards of comparison, so that echo amplitudes can be evaluated in terms of flaw size.

8.2

The size of the discontinuity cannot be estimated directly without making any prior

standardization. Reference blocks with known size of flaws are used for standardization. The height of the echo from a known
48

size of the discontinuity is adjusted to a certain level before conducting actual tests, Also, the same size of discontinuity will not produce equal height echo when its location varies from the surface. height echo when its location varies from the surface When distance increases, the sound beam gets attenuated and hence there will be a reduction in amplitude. Hence a distance amplitude correction curve is to be plotted before starting any test. The echoes obtained from the part is compared to this curve and to be decided whether the discontinuity is acceptable one of to be

repaired with respect to the applicable code. The size of the reference hole will vary with respect
to the thickness of the part being tested. Flat bottom holes of square notches or 'V' notches for angular beam testing. Calibration blocks and reference blocks are used to obtain reasonable

consistent test results when tests are conducted by various times and conditions.
9.0 9.1 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS : Advantages:
49

9.1.1

Most sensitive to planar defects such as cracks.

9.1.2
9.1.3 9.1.4

Test results are known immediately.

Testing can be automatic and the results recorded. Equipment is portable.

9.1.5
9.1.6 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 10.0 10.1

Penetration capable is high

One side acceptability is enough for testing Limitations : Couplant is required. Small, thin and complex parts may be difficult to test. Reference standard is required for evaluation of Operator skill is much counted for the efficiency of the APPLICATION OF ULTRASONIC TESTING : UL transonic inspection has been successfully used to defect flaws in cast and wrought
50

indications. test.

metal parts and in welded, brazed and bonded joints during productions and service.

Contact inspection is more widely used because it involves portable equipment and because of it versatile and applicable to wide range of situations. 10.2 10.2.1 Inspection of Welded Joints : Welded joints may be Ultrasonically inspected using either the straight beam

or the angle beam technique is most often used because of one reason being that the surface of the weld does not have to be ground flush, as is necessary for straight beam inspection. Another reason being that all the flaws shall not be oriented in such a way that it can be picked up in straight beam scanning. The orientation of defects like lack of fusion and cracks are usually longitudinal to the weld axis and are very well favorable for angle beam scanning where the sound beam strike the joint at right angle whereas there are chances of getting these defects missed in

normal beam scanning. The type of the flaws usually encountered in the weld of porosity, slag,
incomplete penetration, lack of fusion and cracks. Spherical porosity will produces a small amplitude echo, even when the sound beam strikes at an angle to the joint. Slag
51

produce stepped indication which are maximum at right angles to the joints. 10.2.2 It is mandatory for elector slab welding to examine by ultrasonic method also after

normalizing. Induction Pressure welds (IPW) are suitable only for ultrasonic testing as lack of bonding is the major defect encounter in the process. Welding of Vanadium steels are

ultrasonically examined after stress relating.

10.3

In addition to flaw detections, Ultrasonic are used for thickness measurements also.

pocket size meters (also known as D- meters) are available for fields application with which we can
measure thickness upto 300mm with an allowance of -0.1mm. The results can be read out on an oscilloscope screen, on a meter or can be printed out. When measuring the thickness care must be taken to see that both the sides are parallel and initial calibration of the equipment is done with a known thickness of same composition of the part being tested with approximately same thickness of the job.
52

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

1.0 Introduction :
The magnetic particles method of non-destructive testing is one of the most common method for finding dis continuities in materials. This method is used for detecting surface and sub-

surface discontinuities in Ferro- magnetic materials. Magnetic particles testing is a relatively

easy and simple test method that can be applied to finished components billets hot rolled bars forgings and castings. It can also be used to check processing operations such as machining, grinding and heat treatment. The objective of magnetic particles testing is to ensure product reliability by providing means of a) Obtaining a visual of an indication related to a discontinuity in or on the surface of the materials. b) Disclosing the nature of discontinuities without impairing the materials. c) Separating acceptable and unacceptable materials in accordance with ore-determined standards.
53

2.0

PRINCIPLE OF MAGNETIC PARTICLES TESTING : The basic principle in magnetic particle testing is that when a component is magnetized,

magnetic lines of force or magnetic flux will be created. Any discontinuity in the materials will cause set up magnetic poles as well as leakage of magnetic flux. If some media which are Ferro magnetic in nature such as iron powder is dusted over the surface of the components, the powder accumulates at the region of the leakage flux and the

appearance of the powder build up will resemble the nature of the discontinuity.
2.1 STEPS IN TESTING : The method involves three essential steps.

a) Magnetizing the materials or a part under test.

b) Applying the Ferro- magnetic particles over the c) Examining the surface for powder patterns or indications.
54

surface.

3.0

METHODS OF MAGNETISATION : Magnetization of the materials can be carried out principally in two ways viz., Circular

magnetization and longitudinal magnetization. 3.1 CIRCULAR MAGNETISATION : A circular magnetic field is induced into the component in two ways either by directed passing the current through the component or indirectly through a central conductor surrounded

by a hollow article.
4.0 MAGNETISING CURRENTS : Straight direct current (D.C) alternative current (A.C) and half wave rectified direct

current (HWNC) are all used. The following are their relative merits and demerits.
4.1 DIRECT CURRENT (D.C) Straight DC is suitable for yokes and solenoids. The penetration power of DC is more than that of AC. However DC cannot be stepped up or down easily.
55

4.2

ALTERNATIVE CURRENT (A.C) :

The current alternates at specified frequency. This type of current created a maximum
flux at the surface of the magnetized article and has relatively les penetrating ability. The advantage of using AC is that the voltage can be stepped up to down. Also the reversal of the magnetizing current cause magnetic particles more mobile facilitating their collection at leakage fields. AC is the best suited for locating surface discontinuities. 4.3 H.W.D.C Half wave Direct Current is produced by rectifying an alternative current during the positive cycles. The use of rectified current has got the following advantages. 1. AC at any commercial frequency can be used. 2. Penetration is directly comparable to that of DC. 3. The pulsating effect of the rectified wave is helpful magnetic particles. 4. There is a definite advantage in locating deep seated discontinuities.
56

in adding mobility to the

5.0

CUPPENT REQUIREMENTS : The required amount of magnetizing current is effected by the permeability of the metal, the

shape and thickness of article and the type of dis- continuities sought. However, the following can be used as 'Rule' of Thumb method :1. Circular magnetization with head shot method. 800 -1000 amps. Per inch dia. or cross

section with
HWDC 500 -600 amps. per inch of dia. cross section with A.C. 2. For circular magnetization with prods. 90-110 amps. per inch of prod-spacing for thickness upto ." 100 -125 amps. per inch of prod- spacing for thickness more than ".

Prod spacing can be kept between 4" and 8" for

effective testing. 3. Longitudinal magnetization using coils. Amps = 45.000 x 1
57

L/D

Where L is the length and D is the dia. of the article and T is the number of turns in the coil. (Limitations). L not more than 18" and L/D between 2& 15. 6.0 TESTING MEDIUM: (MAGNETIC PARTICLES) : The particles used are in all the cases finely divided Ferro magnetic materials. The properties of these materials very over a wide range for different applications including magnetic properties, size shape, density, mobility and visibility and contract. The medium any be dry powder

with various colours for better contract or liquid paste either black, red or fluorescent for use with
black light. DRY METHOD : In dry method, the powder is sprinkled over by dusting by hand bulbs or

mechanical blowers. The medium any be dry powder with various colours for better contract or
liquid paste either black, red or fluorescent for use with black light. 2. WET METHOD : In the wet method, the particles are suspended in a carrier liquid
58

such as kerosene and applied

by spraying, brushing, or sub merging the article in the bath. The concentration of the particles in the bath should be such that the indication of dis-continuity is clear without too much overall surface coverage. The recommended concentration for 100 cc of bath for non-fluorescent particles passing the current in continuous method. In general, the following are the requirements of the particles used for magnetic particles testing. i Non-toxic

ii
iii iv

Fine divided
Ferro magnetic Free from contaminates

v
iv. vii viii

High permeability
Low retentively High colour contrast Correct size range.
59

7.0

SURFACE PREPARATION : Usually as welded, as cast, as forged or as formed surfaces are suitable for magnetic

particles testing However excess scales, ripples, slag, etc., may interfere with the interpretation of
the powder patterns. Also, flakes, heavy built up of paints, rust, grease etc, are to be cleaned, sand blasting wire brushing, filling, grinding etc., are used for removing interfering substances. 8.0 LOCATION OF DISCONTINUITIES : It is possible with suitable technique to locate discontinuities on the surface as well as below surface upto 5mm deep. Discontinuities located on the surface appear as sharp and distinct lines whereas sub-surface dis- continuities appear as irregular, rough ands fuzzy indication varies with the depth of its location below the surface. Correct interpretation of the pattern revealed by

sub- surface discontinuities require a certain skill on the part of the operator.
60

9.0

DEMAGNETISATION : Since all Ferro magnetic materials possess retentively there will be certain amount of

residual magnetism left on the materials tested. the amount of residual magnetism depends on the magnetizing current, its strength and nature (AC or DC) and the permeability of the materials. De magnetization is essential for components to be used in spacecrafts, aero planes, bearings etc., where pick up of iron particles cause damage to the part. De- magnetization is done by passing the

Component through an AC field of gradually reducing current or by periodically reversing and reducing the DC Current. 10.0 FINAL CLEANING : When the magnetic particle testing is completed, the components are cleaned of the

magnetic particles . This is accomplished by the use of air, solvent washes and wiping etc. 11.0 TEST EQUIPMENT : The equipment used for magnetic particles testing ranges from heavy complex automated handling system
61

To small light weight portable units. The following particulars as considered in the selection of an equipment. i) ii) iv) Wet or Dry method AC or DC Degree of automation De- magnetization

v)
vi) vii) viii)

Amperage required
Tank capacity Air supply Line voltage requirements

ix)
12.0

Accessories needed.

CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITIES : The magnetic particle indication observed can be classified into three categories. (a) Dis- continuities (b) Non- relevant indications and (c)

False indications. Dis Continuities can be classified as surface discontinuities and sub surface dis- continuities. In magnetic particle testing, surface dis- continuities magnetic particle testing, surface dis continuities produce sharp, distinct, clear cut and tightly held patterns. Typical examples of this type of defects Are not cracks in welds, heat treatment cracks, grinding cracks, forging laps, hot tears in castings, 62

other magnetic materials in the surrounding formation of contractions in the objects such as keys and spleens in the shafts. False indications are those wherein the magnetic particles are held for reasons other than the flux leakage such as the magnetic particles getting stored in the rough surface. 13.0 APPLICATION : Magnetic particle Inspections is widely used in process control and in the maintenance.

The root welding of a header butt joint or dumb circumferential seam or similar type joints are
magnetic practically tested after gack gouging before going for full welding. Magnetic particle Inspections is a widely used method for examining fillet welds. For detaching any surface cracks

after stress relieving magnetic particles inspections is the best method. All such inspections can
be carried- out using Prod- techniques. Prod method is one way of circularly magnetizing the components by directly passing the current. Large area can be tested part by part and the direction
63

of the field can be changed very easily by relocating the prods. Care must be taken to see that the prod tips are cleaned properly and current is switched only after establishing proper contrast; otherwise excessive arising will take place and can methods can be put into service quite extensively damage the surfaces. Fillet welds in columns and beams are another area where

magnetic particle inspection the shut down used. During maintenance operation thermal power
plant again these method can be put in to service quite extensively.

LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

1.0 1.1 INTRODUCTION : Liquid penetrate Inspection is a non destructive

testing method for finding discontinuities that are open to the surface of solid and essentially nonporous materials. Indications of flaws can be found regardless of the size, configuration, internal
64

structure or chemical of flaw orientation. Liquid Penetrant can seep

surface into (and drawn into) various

types of minute well suited for the detection of all types of surface cracks, laps, porosity, shrinkage areas, laminations and similar discontinuities. It is used extensively for the inspection of wrought and cast

products of both ferrous and non ferrous metals, power metallurgy parts, ceramics, plastics and glass objects and both in fabrication and in maintenance.

1.2

Limitations :

The major limitation of liquid penetrat inspection is that it can detect only imperfections that are open to the surface. Extremely rough or porous surfaces are likely to produce false indications.

2.0

Principle :

2.1

The method employs a penetrating liquid which is applied over the surface and enters the

discontinuity or crack, subsequently after the excess penetrant which exudes or is drawn back out of the

crack is observed indicating the presence and location of the discontinuity. When the penetrant is applied
on the surface, the penetrant enters the discontinuity which is open to the surface by capillary action. The capillary action wick. In a narrow crack, the capillary presence P is given by the formula.
65

P = 2S Cos0 W Where = S = Surface tension of the liquid 0 = Equilibrium contact angle of the liquid and surface of the crack. W = Width of the crack. It can be seen that the capillary action is free from gravitational force penetrant test can be conducted at any positions. 3.0 TEST METHOD : and hence the

Regardless of the type of penetrant used and regardless of other variation in the basic process, liquid penetrant inspection requires the following 5 steps : 1. Surface preparation 2. Application of penetrant 3. Excess penetrant removal 4. Application of developer 5. Inspection 3.1 Surface Preparation :

The material surface to be tested will be having convering such as paints and metallic platics 66 and contaminants such as dirt, grease, rust, scales, acids, chromates

These coverings will prevent the entry of liquid penetrate into the flaw. Unless it is removed, and made the surface clean, dye will not enter the void and there are changes of accepting the defective

ness. So the first step in the penetrant examination is 'Surface preparation'.There are many possible
ways to clean the surface. Any method that will into harm the surface coatings. Shot and sand blasting are not generally recommended. But there are time when they must be used. When they are, the risk is run that a discontinuity, otherwise open to the surface might be closed. When shot or sand blasting must be used, the discontinuities can be reopen with a very slight amount of material from the surface. The cleaning technique being used will be determined by the type of foreign material present and may require either mechanical, solvent etch, ultrasonic or special surface preparation such as vapour degreasing, to assure adequate cleaning and make the discontinuity free of contaminants and open to the surface. A cleaning solvent is used as a final cleaner.
67

The cleaner used must be capable of dissolving and flushing away the typical oil and

grease often found on metal components. The two contaminants, oil and grease are penetrant

themselves and would certainly block the entrance of the penetrant. Also the cleaner must be

volatile so that it easily evaporate out of tight discontinuities and does not remain to ilute or

prevent the entrance of the penetrant. Typical suitable cleaners used are Acetone, percholore-

ethylene, Isopropyl alcohol and Methylene chloride, all of which evaporate readily at normal

temperature.

68

Application of Penetrant : Apply penetrant to the surface of a clean dried part or section to be inspected by any method that will thoroughly wet the surface. Either dipping, spraying, pouring or brushing can be adopted. All the surface should be thoroughly covered to allow capillary action to such the penetrant into discontinuity. Penetrant must cover at least one half inch. either side of a weldments and for all other surfaces at least one inch. around the area to be tested. With Dye Penetrant properly applied, sufficient time should be allowed for the penetrant to enter all the discontinuities, for capillary action to do the job. This time is called the penetration time or dwell time. The two variables for dwell time are the type of material being examined and type of discontinuity for which the test is conducted. While there is no maximum penetration time is recommended, the penetrant should be wet prior to starting the next step. Because of this, once the minimum dwell time is reached, it is best to

start the next step of

69

best to start the next step of excess penetrant removal while the penetrant is still wet. In common, a dwell time of 5 minutes to 10 minutes is given. The Temperature of the part should not be less 160C and more than 520C. 3.3 Step-3 Excess Penetrant Removal : 3.3.1 The presence of any discontinuity is indicated only by the entrapped or penetrated due

and not be the one on the surface. So before pulling back the dye from the discontinuity the

excess penetrant on the surface is to be removed. If the removal is delayed for any reason and
the penetrant has dried, reapply the penetrant to the surface prior to starting the step of excess penetrant removal. When removing excess penetrant, care must be taken not to do anything

that may remove the penetrant from the discontinuity. This is one reason for having the
penetrant wet prior to starting the removal of excess penetrant. The Method of removing the excess penetrant depends upon the type of penetrant used. There are three types of penetrant, viz.
70

1. Water washable 2. Post emulsifiable 3. Solvent removable Type (1) is directly washable by water, whereas type (2) is to be made water washable by emulsification after the dwell time is elapsed. Solvent removable type dye is generally used in site applications because of its simplicity in use and minimum in size of equipments. 3.3.2 An organic solvent, recommended by the manufacture of the penetrant may be used for

excess penetrant removal of solvent removable type penetrant. Flsuhing the surface by cleaner is not permitted. First the surface is cleaned with a dry lint free cloth and then by moistening the cloth and then by moistening the cloth with the recommended cleaner. Full removal of the excess penetrant is judged by the absence of color on the cloth if we have used ordinary visible dye and the absence of fluorescence in the case of fluorescent dye, when the part is viewed under black

light.
71

3.4 3.4.1

Step-3 Developer Application : Developer is a highly absorbent power and is applied to the item being inspected after the

excess penetrant is removed. The developer absorbs the dye penetrant from the discontinuities with a blotting action, spreading the dye to form visible indications. The image of the discontinuity is formed in the developer itself as the dye carrying penetrant spreads out around the edges of the discontinuity it has left. Thus, even slight traces of penetrant are drawn form discontinuity and as

they diffuse in the developer their film thickness is increased and the penetrant is fixed in the
developer. 3.4.2 Developer can be either dry or wet. The wet may be aqueous or non-aqueous

suspendable type. Non-aqueous suspendable type developers are commonly used for general
application. Before applying non aqueous developer, the surface should be dry. The non aqueous developer is applied by spraying using a hand pump or an aerosol can.
72

3.4.3

Development time : The time form the application of the developer to the time the article is inspected is the

development time. Rule of Thumb tell to use a time that is approximately one half the penetration time (dwell time) used. The development time however includes the time in the drier oven also. Development is a minimum time. It must be long enough to assure that the developer has had time to draw the penetrant from

the discontinuity. If the article is inspected too soon, The Spreading of the dye will be more and the indication
may not have reached their maximum, indentcity and therefore be overlooked and if more time is cover the spread will be enlarged.

If fluorescent dye is used, the inspection should be done under black having wave length 3650A. 3.4.4 Post Cleaning :

After the completion of Inspection all the left over chemical are to be cleaned form the surface. 3.5 3.5.1 INSPECTION : Discontinuities at the surface will be indicated by the bleeding out of the penetrant. However,
73

localized surface

irregularities such as from machining marks or other surface condition like press fittings may produce non-relevant in dictations. 3.5.2 Relevant indications or true indications are those which result from mechanical

discontinuities. Only these indications are to be studied for giving the results. Liner indications are those indications in which the length is more than three times the width. Rounded indications are those which are circular of elliptical with the length less than three times the width. 3.5.3 False indications are due to improper removal of excess penetrant such as penetrant on the

hands of the operator or penetrant rubbing of an indication on one specimen to technique an retesting, it is possible to determine either the indication is false or not. 3.5.4 i. While interpreting the indications, the following are to be assessed: Type of Indications : Whether continuous line, intermittent line round or small dots. This

ensures to determine
74

the nature of discontinuities present. Continuous line indications are caused by cracks, cold shuts,

forging laps, scratches and die marks. Interminations are caused by gas holes or pin holes etc. small
dots represents find porosity or micro shrinkage. ii) Extent of discontinuities as evidence by the extension of indications. This has to be viewed form two angles. One how deep the discontinuity goes inside the surface. This can be seen from the brightness of the indications. Deeper the discontinuity, brighter the indications. Another method is the removal of developer surface after nothing the size of the indications on the surface. Once the depth of the discontinuity is approximately known, the nature of discontinuity and its other dimensions such as length, how far they are separated etc. are to be noted. iii. What effect the indicated discontinuity have on the service life of the specimen. or other wards, Whether th discontinuities can be accepted or not. This requires the knowledge on the part of the interpreter to the following.

(a) Whether there is a governing code or standard to has to satisfy.

which the specimen

75

(b) Whether there is many further processing in which the discontinuity may disappear.

c) Previous knowledge of similar parts and processes,

4.0

APPLICATION OF PENETRANT INSPECTION :

Penetrant Inspection is widely used both in fabrication and maintenance. Fillet welds like drum dished ends, attachment stubs, header hand hole plates. R.G. hole plug welding etc. are

inspected by penetrate test. Any modification work during periodical over haul of their boiler as in
scalloped bar welding, attachment welding in super heater are tested by penetrate inspection method. As it can be applied on any kind of materials unlinking to magnetic particles inspections and as is free from and external energy like electricity for operation, and as it can be operated by minimum

technical knowledge, it is a very versatile test method. But before putting the chemicals into use. it is to
be a Ascertained the halogen and Sulphur content should not be harmful to the materials being tested. The testing area should be properly Ventilated, so that the chemicals will not be hazardous to the operator. Exhaust of an should be provided when test is conducted inside a closed vessel.
76